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Oral history interview with Irena Kirkland

Oral History | Digitized | Accession Number: 1996.A.0274 | RG Number: RG-50.106.0029

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    Oral history interview with Irena Kirkland
    Transcript
    The following is an interview of Irena Kirkland.
    It is taking place on June 26, 1996, in Washington DC.
    It is being conducted by Gail Schwartz
    on behalf of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
    Could you please give us your whole name?
    Irena Kirkland.
    And the name you were born with?
    Neumann.
    Where were you born?
    I was born in Prague.
    I would have behind my name "ova."
    It would be "Neumannova" in Czech.
    And when were you born?
    On the 22nd, August '25.
    Who were the members of your immediate family?
    My father, my mother, my sister, and I.
    Your father's name?
    Emil Neumann.
    And where was he from?
    He was from a place which is like 40 miles out of Prague,
    called [PLACE NAME].
    And your mother's name?
    Was Ludmila [? Steinlová. ?] And she is from a place which is
    like also 40, 50 miles out of Prague called Benesov.
    And your sister?
    Her name is [? Alena. ?] Alena Neumannová.
    And how old is she?
    She is the same age as I am.
    She's my twin.
    Twin sister.
    What kind of work did your father do?
    He was an architect--
    engineer architect.
    Did your mother work?
    No, no.
    And did you live right in--
    We lived right in Prague.
    In Prague.
    What kind of neighborhood was it?
    Was it a mixed neighborhood of Jews and non-Jews?
    I don't think--
    I don't know.
    But I don't think it existed.
    The Jews were very assimilated in Prague.
    They were not-- there was no ghetto or anything.
    We lived in the neighborhood where for the first--
    I think our five years of my life--
    were today the residence of the American ambassador is.
    That's the neighborhood it was.
    A very nice, near big park.
    And then we moved to the other side of Prague,
    also near a park or whatever.
    But I don't think it existed, that Jews
    would be living in one place and non-Jews in another.
    OK, so this, as you say, was a mixed neighborhood
    of Jews and non-Jews, then.
    Well, it was mixed.
    But I am not conscious that ever there
    were only Jewish neighborhoods.
    And you said your father was an architect.
    What did he particularly design?
    Houses.
    Private houses?
    Yeah, I think private and office buildings.
    I mean, he was working for a firm.
    And he was what in Europe you would call engineer-architect,
    because he was allowed to build also.
    He designed and built.
    And then he opened his own office.
    Unfortunately, only like a year or two before the war.
    So that went down the chutes then.
    How religious was your family?
    They were not.
    My father came from the kind of generation
    of which I think in the Central or perhaps Western Europe
    was at that time very prevalent, that they were not atheists.
    They were agnostics.
    So we didn't go to any church or any nothing.
    And so did you observe any holidays or?
    No, no.
    Nothing.
    No religious education?
    No.
    Because we did-- only the Catholics
    had the religion in school.
    I mean, during-- then also the non-Catholics had the hour off,
    which we loved.
    So it was not a hardship for us.
    I mean, whether they were Jews or whether they
    were of no religion or Protestant or whatever,
    they had an hour off.
    And I think it was once a week or twice.
    I can't-- I can't remember.
    I mean, how often the religion, the Catholic religion
    was being taught in schools.
    What about your mother's family?
    Your mother, was she religious at all?
    Well, my mother, She died when we were like eight months old.
    And my father remarried whom I would call then mother,
    and I didn't know that she was not
    our mother till I think we were like 14 years old,
    and it came out of an aunt.
    Because when they were going by transport,
    a ship by the Germans, and she let it out.
    So I don't think they--
    the family-- I cannot tell you about the families
    of my parents, whether they were religious or not.
    My mother's father, that would be my grandfather, who
    was a big landowner and he was a member
    of the Austrian parliament for the Czech party, and so that--
    But I have no idea whether he observed something or didn't
    observe, because he was dead by the time we were--
    and on both sides, there was a lot
    of intermarriage in the family.
    So that again, I don't know whether it
    was looked at well or not well, that they married, so to say,
    out of faith.
    Some of my father's sisters, his--
    1, 2, 3, I think, siblings married non-Jews.
    And so I don't know, I mean, what was happening.
    When you were a young girl and growing up,
    did you consider yourself Jewish?
    Did you know you were?
    I don't know, really.
    I don't think I thought about it too much.
    I do remember that when Hitler marched to Prague,
    which was on the 15th of March '38--
    '39.
    Sorry, '39, that mother called us to her bedroom before we
    went to school, and told us that we are Jewish,
    and that it will not be so good and so and so forth.
    And I remember that I came back from school,
    and we had for lunch something which I loved.
    And I couldn't understand then, when the whole world
    is going to pieces, and my world, I mean, you don't know,
    we will be dead tomorrow.
    And we have what I love.
    But I don't know, really, whether I--
    how much I was thinking about it.
    I never thought about it, because it was such
    an important part since '39.
    But what happened before, everything
    seems like marvelous times and no worries.
    Do you remember what was it like when your mother told you,
    you were Jewish?
    Did it come as a complete surprise?
    Well, it was just before we went-- no, I don't think so.
    I don't think so.
    I mean, it was--
    no, I'm sure that I knew that.
    No, I'm sure that I knew that.
    But that was not something which I can put my finger on.
    I think we knew that.
    It's only that we didn't go to religious school.
    I mean, some-- and we did not--
    my parents didn't go on the high holidays or--
    Did you celebrate Christmas?
    Did you--
    Yes, we did.
    But then everybody did.
    I mean, that's not-- it was not really--
    because the religious people went to church.
    The non-religious had a marvelous dinner,
    and children got beautiful presents,
    and we had a tree, yes.
    Let's talk about your schooling now.
    What kind of school did you go to as a young girl?
    Well, I think it was a law, you had
    to go to the school which was nearest to you,
    the first five years of your schooling.
    So this was a local public school?
    Yes, we didn't have--
    I don't know whether they now will have it,
    but I don't think So except England,
    the Europeans didn't have too much of private schooling.
    Usually if a child couldn't make it in a public school,
    you sent him to private school, and it meant
    that the schooling is bad.
    Not the public, the private was.
    For money, you buy him some degree,
    but you don't buy him good schooling.
    And then there were religious Catholic schools.
    I don't know whether they were Protestant
    as well, but Catholic.
    And again, they were basically for kids who couldn't make it.
    So that it probably was that like everywhere else
    that the schools were the bourgeoisie
    or the better class people will be better than very, very poor
    people live.
    But we had the kids from very poor families
    and so on, I think.
    And then you continued on to another school?
    And then after that, at that time after the first five
    classes, you go either to a high school,
    which leads to university, which would be 8 years.
    Or you go to four years, where you then cannot go
    to university.
    So you have to take an exam.
    And that was--
    I don't think that it was a completely private school.
    They were only that they were public,
    but you had to pay if your father made so much and so
    much, so that we paid.
    I mean, but we went to the one which
    leads to the university, which had Latin and things like that.
    When you were in school, were there any unpleasant incidents
    because you were Jewish?
    Did you sense any of that?
    I'm talking about early on.
    No.
    No problems?
    And what about in your neighborhood.
    I mean, did you play with the other neighborhood children?
    Yeah.
    But there were no difficulties, no problems?
    No, no.
    What other interests did you have?
    Were you interested in music?
    Well, we had to have piano lessons.
    I mean, not that I wanted to, but we
    had to go to piano lessons.
    We had firstly after the--
    we were very small.
    We had a Czech nanny.
    Then we had a German one.
    And then we had somebody who was mademoiselle--
    I mean that we should learn French.
    It did not take too well, because we were two
    and she was one.
    But--
    What language did you speak at home?
    Czech.
    You spoke Czech at home?
    Yeah.
    Yeah.
    So you were very close to your sister,
    being a twin growing up?
    Did you have a good--
    We fought a lot.
    And I mean, we were like one person.
    So that it's you are fighting with yourself,
    but we fought a lot.
    And she had at that time very often bronchitis.
    So she was weaker.
    Are you identical twins?
    Yeah, yeah.
    And so that-- but otherwise, we were.
    We couldn't do anything else, because we
    went to the same school.
    We were living in the the same house.
    And we looked exactly the same.
    And people would say much later that when--
    I mean friends, that somebody would say, what are you
    doing today in the afternoon?
    And I or she would say, well, I'm doing such and such.
    And what is the other one doing?
    Well, of course the same.
    I mean, we didn't even consider probably that we are two.
    Were you interested in sports?
    We had to go to certain--
    we had it in school.
    We did-- kind of--
    I don't think so, no.
    No, we went skiing in the winter, and I broke my--
    I remember my wrist skating, and I hated skating.
    So that was a great burden that I broke the wrist.
    And we went, of course in summer.
    My parents always took us for two months somewhere
    in the country, so with the other family members and so--
    and so we went swimming.
    You know, the normal kind.
    I think when we were 13, started tennis or whatever.
    Any youth group membership?
    They sent us one year to a camp, which
    was done a la American camps.
    You know, youth camp.
    And I can't-- and there was the two of us and a cousin as well.
    And I don't think either of us really enjoyed that very much.
    We didn't suffer there, but it was not something which--
    I think we were probably quite spoiled.
    Were your parents interested in Zionism at all?
    Or was that not a part of their--
    No, no.
    It wasn't.
    No, no, no.
    Now, of course you were obviously very young in 1933,
    but when were you first aware of Hitler?
    Do you remember when that first--
    But there were refugees coming from Germany.
    And my grandmother had--
    I think it was her sister or grandfather's sister, I don't
    know, who lived in Vienna.
    She was a typical--
    a typical kind of spinster old lady.
    And she came suddenly to Prague.
    Yeah.
    And I mean, I'm sure that the grown-ups
    talk about it quite a lot.
    And we were aware.
    I mean, the Czechs never liked very much Germany,
    and so that it was not difficult than you
    would be aware there's something bad happening next door.
    And plus the part of Bohemia, that
    Sudetenland where the Germans started, and we
    used to-- that's where everybody used to go to ski.
    And plus my mother had a cousin there, who had a factory
    and they lived there.
    And so that I can't tell you when I was,
    but we certainly were conscious very much of Hitler.
    Were you particularly frightened at that point?
    I don't think that we ever thought that they could occupy.
    Czechoslovakia had a very good army, very militarily strong.
    And it was a rich country with great industry.
    I think they were number two in steel
    and every third car in Europe was Czech or whatever.
    So that it was kind of inbred, nothing very much
    can happen to us.
    I mean, we would fight.
    And I remember that in 1939, before Munich, they
    kept the mobilization.
    That was before the Czech president gave the Sudetenland.
    So they mobilized.
    And at that time, they asked everybody
    who has the possibility that women and children should
    be evacuated out of Prague.
    So we went with my parents' friends.
    And we had the nanny with us.
    And we went out of Prague to a place.
    And my father then with the other men
    returned to Prague in case they would be called up or whatever.
    And you saw the roads lined up by people,
    asking for a lift to go to their battalion or whatever.
    I mean, they were called up and everything.
    And there was no--
    everybody very-- I still remember
    that, I mean, in a very up mood.
    And that night, in that place outside of Prague,
    when German Fraulein came to our room and made us
    kneel and swear on the Bible that we will never
    say that she's born in Sudeten Germany,
    that she's German, that we will always say that she's Czech,
    and that she's very--
    she loves Jews or Whatever
    And of course when Hitler marched
    in, she was the first one who marched to our house
    and said to my mother, I know exactly which jewelry you have,
    and don't you dare to hide it and blah, blah, blah.
    But at that time, I mean, she was absolutely on our side.
    And then after a few days when the Munich pact was signed,
    and so we were going back to Prague,
    you so growed up man standing on the road crying.
    Because I don't think that anybody imagined--
    and that was not Jews or non-Jews--
    I mean, that they will give up without firing a shot.
    And so then it started to be much--
    I mean, you know everybody knew that that the Czech countries
    are vulnerable.
    I mean--
    Were you able to talk this over with your parents, the change?
    Because you said this was the change.
    No, no, no.
    You went back home to Prague?
    Yes, and I'm sure that that was when my father tried
    and started to get us visa to some country,
    and to get us out, which was by that time nearly impossible.
    I mean--
    And did he talk things over with you
    about what he thought would happen?
    No, no, no.
    Did you and your sister talk between yourselves
    about this terrible change?
    I don't think so.
    I don't think so.
    Because you were young.
    You were young.
    And I think that also everybody was trying to pretend--
    I don't know-- that nothing will happen or whatever.
    I mean, it was--
    that was the end of the good times.
    Did you have a lot of extended family?
    Yes.
    Yeah.
    Cousins and aunts?
    Yeah.
    Was it a close--
    Yes, yes, yes.
    You would get together?
    Yeah, yeah.
    Everybody talked to everybody.
    They would-- but most of them did not come back
    after the war, though.
    All right, so now you're back in Prague.
    Yeah.
    And what was the next change?
    I kind of don't remember too much
    what was happening between that Munich and March of the Germans
    marching into Prague.
    Marching into Poland, you mean?
    Or marching?
    No, they marched first--
    they marched on 15th of March '39, they marched to Prague.
    To Prague, yeah.
    They marched in '38 to Vienna.
    '37 or '38, yeah?
    Right.
    And then '39 to Prague.
    Did your family know or were you aware of Kristallnacht?
    I'm sure that--
    I do know that they knew, because then everybody knew
    Kristallnacht.
    Because I kind of have memories of the radio talking about it
    or whatever.
    But the Germans came in '39, and--
    What was it like for you as a young girl
    to see the Germans coming in?
    I don't know, really.
    I really don't.
    I mean, that's--
    Seeing uniforms, was that frightening?
    I don't think it was as frightening as it should be.
    Because they came kind of--
    unfortunately, there was no television.
    So what do you didn't go to see, you didn't see.
    Right, saw what was nearby.
    And they went downtown in the Wenzel Square.
    And so--
    So then life in a sense continued on for a bit,
    once they invaded?
    Yeah, yeah.
    You continued in school.
    Yes.
    And your daily routine continued.
    Yes.
    And I wouldn't know how fast which law came,
    because they were kind of putting the laws against Jews
    and this.
    I don't know which, because there
    was a point when they wouldn't allow Jews to go to school.
    Then they wouldn't also allow to have more in the apartments.
    You were allowed to have--
    Jews were allowed only to have so much and so much place,
    so that you had to take other families in.
    And then there was one that--
    one of the first was that Jews have to give all their jewelry
    to the fatherland.
    Then they were not allowed to have pets.
    So we had the dog and a canary.
    So I remember that my parents sent the dog to some friends
    outside Prague, and bought something
    which they gave him, because you know
    that he would be destroyed.
    It was a kind of a sadism of the uttermost.
    Because what can they do with the dogs or whatever?
    What was it like for a young teenager
    to be told she couldn't go to school?
    You know, there were so many worries that I cannot tell you
    how it was, because they of course--
    they wanted to make out of Jews a race which that--
    I don't know which came first, between a race which was,
    but also that they wouldn't know how to read and write
    and whatever.
    And so even though it was actually against a German law
    so that my parents took somebody who would teach us privately.
    So we were not off the hook.
    Then we were not allowed, of course,
    to go to movies or whatever but to park.
    So that's when we used to go to the old Jewish cemetery
    to play around there.
    And then-- it was one after-- and I
    don't know which came when.
    I mean, and I remember when the first transports started,
    which was I think in '41.
    And then everybody had to be registered.
    And unfortunately, Czechoslovakia
    was a very Western country.
    So they had everybody registered.
    You know, even if you didn't register, the registry where
    you were born or whatever would send it to them,
    because it was German-occupied.
    So it didn't help what you did.
    I mean, everything was on paper nicely.
    So you had your own identification papers?
    Did you?
    I don't know when it started, whether they
    start to wear the star.
    I think that was like '41.
    To actually wear a star on your clothing?
    Yeah, yeah.
    So that everybody sees immediately that you are a Jew.
    How did that feel for you to do that?
    Well, it scares the hell out of you.
    Because that's not a--
    you couldn't go--
    I think in the shopping, then you could go only
    from 5:00 to 7:00.
    I mean, I don't remember what there was.
    There was one thing after another what you couldn't do
    and what you could do.
    What about your non-Jewish friends?
    Did they change in their attitude towards you?
    Well, they would be--
    funnily enough, I remember only one who did.
    And that was the one who was in our class,
    and her mother was washerwoman.
    I mean, it was--
    and so-- and my sister and I liked her very much,
    because she used four-letter language.
    And she would always say, you know,
    your mother never uses four-letter word,
    and we would swear she does, and she didn't.
    I mean, it was--
    and when we had private lessons, my parents
    paid for her as well.
    And so she was the first one which dropped us.
    And no, that makes actually sense.
    People don't like to say thank you.
    I mean, I'm sure that her mother said you will be nice to them.
    I don't know, but perhaps she was a horrible person.
    But perhaps it was just normal that [? she thinks ?]
    thank God I don't need to try to eat like a human being
    when I go to their house for lunch or whatever.
    Plus, I don't need to learn anymore
    English or French or whatever.
    But otherwise, I think they used to come at the beginning,
    and tell us what they are learning in school.
    I don't have a memory that somehow we were dropped.
    I mean--
    Before you couldn't go to school,
    were the teachers still pleasant to you?
    Yes.
    Yeah, yeah.
    So there was no problem there either?
    I don't think so.
    I don't have a memory.
    Perhaps I was dumb, but I have no memory of that.
    [LAUGHTER]
    Very good customer.
    This is tape one, side B. And we were
    talking about your childhood.
    Are you and your sister similar in personality?
    Yes, I think she's the stronger of the two of us.
    But yes, I would say.
    That's why I wanted that-- and she perhaps
    is coming at the end of August.
    So if you could--
    because I wanted originally that we do it together.
    So Because it would be a little bit like Rashomon,
    you only have one thing.
    Is there more coffee?
    So how would you describe your personalities at that time?
    Were you outgoing or quiet?
    No, I don't think we were quiet.
    More outgoing, friendly type children?
    I think so.
    OK, so now you're at home, and you're wearing the star.
    And again, did you share your thoughts with your sister
    then about what it's like to wear the star?
    I don't even know.
    No, no, no.
    I don't remember one single incident talking about it.
    And the restrictions increased?
    Yeah.
    And then what was the next change?
    Well, the transports started, which
    is a frightening kind of thing.
    How did you know about them?
    Well, first of all, one of my uncle
    went with one of the first one, where they--
    I think it was basically all lawyers went somewhere to--
    it was sent somewhere to Poland.
    And it was, I think, Litzmanns--
    Lodz.
    And I don't think anybody survived.
    I mean, not a single person survived.
    And then there was again a little bit of respite.
    And then they started to send it,
    and I remember we had to go and work then
    at the Jewish community.
    Why it was, I don't know anymore,
    but I don't even know what I was doing there.
    I think I was standing at a machine there.
    What kind of machine?
    I think it was what do you call the copy machine?
    [INAUDIBLE] But I don't know why I would--
    and they were not good times.
    And then in '43, we got our--
    and we were shipped.
    All right, if we can talk a little bit about that,
    how did your family find out what they had to do?
    How were they notified?
    Well, it came by--
    I think it came by paper, by a letter or whatever.
    To report to a certain place?
    Yes, yes.
    It was a place.
    I'm sure it still exists in Prague,
    where they had the big fairs.
    Kind of--
    Big grounds?
    Yeah, and they put there whatever, 5,000 people.
    That I know, like sardines, one next to another.
    What did you take with you?
    They allowed you, I think, 20 kilos.
    Did you take anything special with you?
    We didn't--
    As a teenager?
    By that-- no, I would say that we probably-- everybody
    did the same, to take warm clothing.
    You know, nobody knew, I mean--
    and--
    Did you know where you would be going,
    or they just told you to report?
    Yeah, I don't know whether we knew
    that we are going to Theresienstadt
    or whether that we didn't, but that's where we went.
    So the four of you, your mother, father, and your sister,
    and you reported together?
    Right, right.
    And then after I think three, four days,
    I don't know how long we were there.
    Those are things--
    In this collection area.
    Yeah.
    They put us on trains.
    And--
    The four of you are still together?
    Yes.
    Did you have other relatives with you at that time?
    No, I don't think that they were--
    I think my grandparents just went before.
    And some other relatives went like before.
    I mean, we were one of the last of our family.
    I mean, not of all the [? trains. ?]
    We were one of the last.
    And we went to Theresienstadt.
    OK, which is about 40 miles from Prague.
    But that journey--
    Is it 40 miles?
    No, it must be more.
    I think it took like three or five hours.
    I don't know, but--
    I think it's about approximately 40 miles.
    What?
    By train 40 miles would be--
    It went slowly.
    No, because I said that--
    Or maybe it wasn't direct.
    Maybe.
    Maybe they didn't go in a direct line.
    I don't know.
    Whatever.
    I couldn't imagine.
    I think it must be more.
    From the simple point of view I said that I go by kilometers--
    Oh, right.
    So kilometers would be 60, 70?
    Yeah, no.
    But that's because I said that the place where my father is
    from or my mother is 40 miles.
    But then it's next door.
    It's five miles.
    You went by train?
    Yeah.
    OK.
    And what was that train ride like?
    I don't remember.
    I don't remember.
    I remember the train going to Auschwitz.
    I don't remember this one.
    What was your first impressions of Theresienstadt
    when you arrived?
    You know, it was a barrack city from Maria Teresa,
    from the 18th century.
    The Czechs used that.
    And and next door was what they called the Fortress
    Theresienstadt, which was one of the worst
    Germans under the Nazis, where were
    a lot of political prisoners.
    But this was a--
    And they were barracks.
    I mean, old kind of, where I don't know.
    I can't-- I know that we were in one of the barracks.
    How many thousand people lived in one room,
    I don't know anymore.
    I knew-- but--
    Were the men and women still together?
    Were you still with your father.
    I think, yes.
    Yes.
    And--
    Would you characterize your parents
    as being very strong people?
    Was your father--
    I'm sure my father--
    --able to keep his composure?
    Yes, that he did.
    But we met there with some people we knew.
    So that-- I mean, so that at least I remember that I had
    a feeling that it was--
    because it was that certain familiarity,
    because you saw some people.
    And--
    Where did you eat?
    You went for-- you had a kind--
    like a-- you know, for camping they use it.
    And you went to a communal kitchen, which they put some--
    On your tray?
    Tray.
    Trays!
    I meant a small dish tray or whatever.
    Yeah, yeah.
    And I think that's what--
    that's how I remember that.
    What was the food they gave you?
    What kind of food?
    Terrible, but I don't remember that--
    I mean, the hunger which we had then in the German camps,
    that I do remember much more so.
    I think it was-- it was not plentiful.
    It was not even enough, but it was not
    something that you only think about food, that it
    was probably still, let's say, a potato here and potato there,
    and something.
    And you are 18 years old at this point.
    Yeah, yeah.
    Did you feel very old by that time,
    considering what you had just gone through?
    No, why would I feel old?
    Well, I mean, leaving your home and going to this transit
    center.
    Yeah, but it had nothing to do with age.
    I just know whether it made you feel older
    than a typical 18-year-old young woman.
    Oh, no.
    That I thought about only after the war, that I never was 18.
    I mean, that we had not the luxury to think about.
    What was a typical day like there?
    We had to work there.
    No, I think that the first--
    I don't know how long.
    We worked in so-called the agriculture,
    which was very bad for people like me,
    who know nothing about agriculture, don't care for it.
    And you know, because you are bending around in the sun.
    You were-- I don't know what it was anymore,
    what we were doing.
    You were working out in the field.
    Yeah, right.
    So you could pick up here a strawberry or something
    to eat, perhaps.
    But it was so--
    and then I worked in a factory there, which was making--
    I think constructing beds for those barracks.
    You know, from wood.
    I mean with a ma-- and that I kind of liked better,
    I remember.
    What month in 1943 did you go to Theresienstadt?
    I don't know whether it was May or June,
    but it was somewhere there that it was.
    And then came--
    I think it was October in '43, which was the fateful transport
    to Auschwitz, which we both were, Alena and I.
    And my father somehow managed to get--
    he thought both of us, but only Alena got the piece of paper
    that she is out, that she doesn't need to go.
    Because that she has-- so it was that she got scarlet fever.
    And there were-- and then I got the exclusion.
    I still have this piece of paper,
    because that was the transport which went--
    the whole 5,000 went to gas.
    I mean, there is not one survivor.
    So that was--
    I should actually give it to the Holocaust Museum.
    If I give it to you--
    We could work something out.
    Yeah.
    Yeah, because that I don't know whether they
    have things like that that.
    Now, why were you excluded?
    I can't-- I don't know.
    I think that-- well, I am sure that my father tried, whatever.
    And I was.
    Whether it was-- who know?
    When these transports would leave--
    Yeah.
    --would you know where--
    No, they didn't.
    My father maintained that he knew.
    Because he never told us when we then were going,
    that it goes to Auschwitz, and that Auschwitz gas.
    So it is.
    They thought that they know where they are going,
    but the gas question wasn't there.
    OK.
    And--
    When the Red Cross came to visit and the camp was spruced up,
    were you a part of that.
    I think we still were there, but it was a big failure.
    Right, this big hoax, right.
    No, the failure was of the Red Cross.
    They got intimidated by the German.
    We were not there anymore.
    But I was told because my parents were there behind,
    that the Swedes came later, and they didn't take any nonsense
    from the Germans.
    When they said you have to stay outside
    and you can't talk to the prisoner or whatever,
    they said, nothing doing.
    We don't talk to warring parties.
    We don't talk to you.
    We go in and we talk to them.
    And they distributed cigarettes or whatever it was.
    But it was a great morale booster.
    Whereas the Red Cross shut up and went home.
    I mean, [INAUDIBLE]
    So you worked first in the fields, then in the factory.
    Yeah.
    Any other jobs?
    I don't think that I had any other job.
    What were the sanitary conditions like for you?
    You know, that I don't remember.
    But I don't remember at all how did we stay clean or what.
    Not at all.
    I have also no--
    I know that we had a certain social life, which
    was a unique sense.
    And I don't think many people kind of understand it.
    But there was a decision by the Terezin--
    Terezin population.
    Now, they were there only the Czech Jews, some German Jews,
    Dutch, the one--
    and the Danish who did not--
    were able to escape to Sweden.
    So then it was the crop of the crop, so to say,
    of intellectuals.
    There were not really workers in between those Jews.
    Everybody was Herr Doktor.
    And so they decided that you combat hunger by culture.
    So they had readings, and they had--
    they smuggled in one piano to have an opera.
    And they were putting together--
    that was I think Verdi's Requiem.
    Well, anyhow, they performed the day when that--
    they didn't know.
    That was the horror of it.
    When the 5,000 people went to gas in Auschwitz.
    But they had a [? Requiem. ?] And they really were kind of--
    they had fiddlers going where the really old people,
    you know, who were starving.
    Because you were getting food also according to your job.
    If you were younger.
    you get more, because you worked on a more strenuous job.
    Whereas the old people who couldn't work, got the--
    And so that they were going, fiddlers
    around playing Viennese schmaltz music.
    But it was something which I don't think
    anybody can imagine that--
    well, it's like in any ghetto, if the people say,
    no, you will not kill us.
    We will really survive by culture.
    We have it, and that will save us.
    And it did.
    And--
    What did you take part in?
    No, I went to all these.
    You went to all these concerts and readings?
    Yeah, yeah.
    But there was a social life kind of.
    Not that you had food and not that you had--
    What did it consist of, your social life?
    Well, you saw people, or you--
    I can't tell you that, but it's--
    there was a certain kind of--
    which the other camp, of course, didn't have.
    What about contact with other young men your age?
    Yes, we saw them and there was--
    Any romances?
    Any--
    Yes, there were romances.
    And of course, most of them didn't come back.
    And then we-- both of them--
    Were you able to spend time with other young men out of crowds?
    Any privacy?
    Well, that's what I cannot remember, really, too much.
    Because I know that you had to be--
    you couldn't be in the evening out.
    And you worked eight or whatever hours.
    So I can't-- somehow I know that we were together, but how--
    Were there any days that you didn't have to work?
    I think Sundays.
    Sunday was the day off?
    Perhaps, but I'm not sure.
    I really am not sure.
    And because also I entered working without knowing
    what it means, really.
    I mean, it was not like a person who
    finishes school and gets a job, I mean,
    so that you will have some--
    but--
    How did you feel about the lack of privacy
    in your living conditions?
    I think that you are so scared that you don't
    think about certain things.
    It's the human nature can look, how did people survive seven
    years in a Vietnamese prison?
    I mean, something happens to the brain or whatever it is.
    Did your sister do the same kind of work you did?
    Was she working alongside of you?
    Yes.
    Or I alongside her.
    And what about your parents?
    Were they working?
    Yes.
    What kind of work did they do?
    Well, that's what I don't know anymore, what my father
    and mother were doing.
    And their health was OK in Theresien?
    Yeah, yeah.
    Kind of, yeah.
    And your health?
    Yes, we got both of us encephalitis.
    Because that was a sudden--
    An epidemic?
    Epidemic.
    And of course they had no medicine, but they--
    but I think that was one time when the Germans allowed
    a little bit more food or something, because these things
    don't know borders.
    So that-- because they had infections there.
    They had the scarlet fever.
    Then they had the encephalitis.
    Kind of epidemics.
    What was it like for you to be with people
    from other countries?
    The other refugees who came to the camp?
    Did you mix with them?
    No, we were kind of the--
    first of all, the Danes had a bit--
    they were under the protection of the chief rabbi
    plus the archbishop or whatever of Sweden.
    So they got parcels.
    They got much better treatment.
    And they were accounted for.
    I mean, you know, the Swedes really--
    I think the Swedes did--
    I don't know what everything they gave to the German--
    they gave them also--
    entrée to Norway, but they also, I mean, took care of them.
    And the Dutch, they also somehow didn't
    go to transport from Theresien.
    There was also some kind of a protection for them.
    Not all.
    Sorry.
    Not all.
    So perhaps the Dutch didn't have it so well.
    But with the Germans and Austrian, I don't know.
    But you spoke fluent German at that point?
    No, I spoke German.
    You spoke German.
    We didn't like it, because it was the language of Hitler.
    You know, I mean, it's not--
    something we're kind of resisted.
    And I remember I once cried to my grandmother,
    why do we have to learn German?
    And she said, look at the map.
    You know, and of course, if we learned Russian,
    it would have been better, but--
    Were there any particularly physically difficult
    experiences for you there?
    I know you were working hard and the food was scarce,
    but did you have any situations where it was a particularly
    difficult?
    Because of the time after we left
    to go to Auschwitz and then to Germany was so bad
    that I probably automatically blocked anything bad
    about the Theresienstadt, because that
    was the good times.
    The good times were not Prague, because I couldn't remember.
    You know, that was--
    It's all relative, you mean.
    Yeah.
    Yeah.
    So then you stayed there working.
    Yeah.
    Until when?
    We went in '44.
    It was, I think, November '44.
    Oh, so you were there for--
    A year and something, yeah.
    15, 16 months.
    Perhaps it was October.
    And all that time you lived with your family.
    Yeah, we moved somehow around there.
    In the compound?
    I think we did, yeah.
    Yes, yeah, yeah.
    I think so.
    You know my sister would--
    I don't know I never kind of concentrated on
    That and then how did you know-- again how did you know?
    Oh, you got your pieces of paper.
    The Germans were very good about everybody's accounted for,
    and everybody gets those.
    And you're still wearing your clothes from home?
    We didn't have uniforms.
    That I know.
    So then probably.
    So you got your notice that you would be leaving.
    Yeah.
    And that was bad.
    We had a very good friend who we'd
    met there in Theresienstadt.
    Her name was Eva, Iva.
    And Neumann, like ours.
    From Czechoslovakia?
    She was, yeah, Czech.
    She was not from Prague.
    She came from some city.
    She was only half-Jewish.
    And absolutely this non-Jewish, this Czech kind with this--
    and she was much more kind of a person the same age as we were,
    and much tougher, because she came
    from tougher background, which probably both of us
    liked very much.
    I mean, not to us, but she took life much better than--
    And she was in the same transport.
    So that we were the three of us, kind of.
    And the transport always went late at night.
    It was probably not so late, but it was dark.
    And as far as I can remember, they were not normal wagons.
    But they were kind of--
    I don't know whether we sat on ours.
    We had what we were taking with us.
    And it took a long time to get there.
    We got to Auschwitz.
    And it was dark, and there was a German with the dogs,
    and they were immediately dividing you,
    this way, which still didn't know what that meant.
    When somebody asked what happened to the other--
    because they marched, I think, somewhere.
    What happened to the others?
    That was already a Jewish kapo or whatever
    who said, "you see the smoke from there?
    That's from your people."
    And they marched us to that place, where they look at you
    and strip and shave you, [INAUDIBLE]..
    And I think that went through the whole night.
    I don't know.
    And they put us then in the barracks.
    And it was terribly cold to stand that Zahlappell,
    but they had the dogs there.
    And they started to take down only then your--
    by that time, you had no documents, no nothing.
    Until that time in Theresien, you always
    had a piece of document.
    You existed as such.
    And because they took everything away and put us in the prison
    or in uniforms or whatever, so that we had nothing of ours.
    And there came a kapo to take down our particulars.
    You know, name, born, where.
    And when it came to either Alena or me,
    we were together, those three.
    We started to give--
    the name was really the same.
    But we started to give the same date of birth.
    And this kapo must have had two seconds humanity in,
    and she said--
    barked, give a year different.
    So we did.
    Because we would have ended in that--
    which-- and I still don't know how long
    we stayed in Auschwitz.
    Because they were by that time sending people who were
    able to the slave labor camps.
    It was--
    And I think it was two, three weeks.
    I only remember the cold.
    It was full of mud, standing in that without--
    somehow they didn't have proper uniforms.
    So we had like summer dresses.
    It was cold, and we were standing in the morning,
    and we were standing in the evening.
    And then we went through more of those kind of exclusive kind
    of--
    they were trying-- well, the exclusions, whom they
    sent to gas and things here.
    And then one day, there was a big, fat German sitting
    with dresses and shoes, because we had no shoes.
    We had only kind of this wooden shoe.
    A clog.
    Yeah.
    This is tape two, side A. And you were talking about
    that you didn't have shoes.
    You had the wooden clogs, and there
    was this man sitting there.
    No, it was a woman.
    A woman.
    With a big stick, with which she beat sometimes people.
    And would be giving from a pile shoes and some dress,
    because we were supposed to be shipped to Germany for work,
    but that we didn't know what for but she--
    And I got shoes into which I couldn't get.
    And I have a small foot, but that's--
    and this friend of ours, this Eva
    said, you go back and ask for normal shoes.
    And I said, no, I'm too scared.
    Because she's sitting there like a frog
    with that stick with which--
    she said, I don't care.
    If you don't, I beat you up.
    So I did.
    I said, I can't get into these shoes.
    So I think that she beat me once, but gave me shoes
    into which I could get in.
    That probably saved me because one of the first thing which
    freezes are your toes.
    You can't go without.
    So then we were--
    I have no idea how long, whether we were given food or whatever,
    but put us again in these cattle wagons
    and dragged us through Germany.
    Let's back up a little bit, and then we'll come to that.
    If we can go back just to your journey to Auschwitz
    from Terezin.
    And you were with your-- the four of you
    were still together in the car, in the cattle car.
    Not four, three.
    Oh, when you left to go to Auschwitz,
    it was just the three girls?
    Yeah.
    Oh, what about your parents?
    They stayed behind.
    They stayed behind?
    Yeah.
    Were you able to say goodbye to them?
    Oh, yes.
    They only thought that we went to gas.
    I don't know.
    Somebody-- there came a garbled message or whatever.
    But that's everything when we found out when we came back.
    But--
    What was it like to have to say goodbye to them?
    Look, that was not pleasant.
    It was not.
    Did they say anything special to you?
    No, no, no.
    Because apparently my father said
    that he knew about the gas.
    There were very few people who knew that it was.
    But he didn't tell us, because he didn't want us to be scared.
    Now, for instance what people didn't
    know how and what, because both of us, my sister and I,
    were always nearsighted.
    So the normal thing would be to put our glasses
    on when we got out of the train, because that you
    don't lose them.
    Yeah.
    But we were fortunately both too vain.
    We never wore the glasses.
    Had we had them on our nose, we would have automatically gone
    to gas.
    Because that's how that-- you know.
    So there were thousands of things which
    worked this way or that way.
    And--
    The three of you were together in the car?
    Yeah.
    What was that like?
    What were the conditions like?
    Oh, they were terrible.
    I think that-- I think that that was--
    it was closed cattle Wagon They were
    not open, because the open one, we went from Germany.
    So it didn't rain or snow into it.
    But I'm sure that some people died there
    even because it went for days.
    There was no food distributed.
    There was-- It was--
    I don't know how it's possible to survive, but you survived.
    And the three of you stayed close together in a car?
    Yeah.
    But you couldn't move.
    So once you get together, you cannot move.
    And how did you sleep?
    Well, that's [INAUDIBLE].
    Sitting up, whatever.
    We were not standing.
    I think we sat on our--
    at that time, we were still having kind
    of a bundle with us, which we were taking, which they took
    away, of course, immediately.
    But on that I think we sat.
    And did they pass on any food or water to you?
    No, I don't think so.
    I have no memory of it.
    And again the sani--
    I don't know.
    When you think about it, I have no idea.
    No memory.
    And when you arrived, was it morning or evening?
    It was dark.
    There were some reflectors.
    They looked 6 foot 2.
    And it's right-- because the dirt,
    they had these white sleeves on uniforms, and with a dog.
    There was a German shepherd always.
    And they looked tall, blonde, and clean.
    And they were probably small and dark.
    Because I went-- when Eichmann--
    we saw him in Auschwitz.
    When he was on trial--
    Is this Eichmann or Mengele?
    Mengele was the one who was doing this,
    but Eichmann was also in Auschwitz.
    He was looking always.
    But whatever, I went when he was on trial.
    I was living in Los Angeles at that time, Beverly Hills.
    And I went to Israel to see him, to end the war.
    And I couldn't believe, that this is a little guy, was dark,
    balding.
    I mean, it was unbelievable.
    I would have sworn that I know how he looks.
    So--
    So how did you know what to do when you got out of the car.
    We didn't know.
    They told us.
    They screamed.
    You know, [MUMBLING] So we marched where they told us.
    And again, you three girls together
    were able to stay together.
    Well, they sent us--
    I told you that they stripped us as we went--
    I meant just getting off the car and the initial telling you
    where to go, you three of you were
    able to stay together the whole time.
    Mm-hmm.
    Now, did you get a number in Auschwitz?
    No, we didn't.
    There was-- I think that when we came,
    they didn't anymore give numbers, because I don't know.
    I mean, [INAUDIBLE].
    What is it like, for again, for a 19-year-old girl?
    You said you had your hair--
    Shaved?
    That was terrible.
    Because at that time, on top of it, we were all so short.
    They shaved it completely.
    Other women did this?
    And your body hair also?
    I don't think so.
    Just your hair.
    I think.
    Other women did this?
    No, I think they--
    I don't know.
    The men were there.
    The women-- they were the kapos.
    I mean, those were not Germans I mean, they were horrible.
    I mean, that's-- they were not nice people.
    In what way?
    In every way.
    They were like the Germans.
    I don't know.
    I don't want to--
    look, Israel has the law, if you were a kapo Nazi, you--
    I mean, I think that is a capital punishment for a kapo.
    I mean, that's not a joke.
    Kapo, even if they are Jewish, I mean,
    there was a case in Israel about a kapo.
    I forget what happened and how it happened, but--
    What was it like when you saw your sister
    after she had no hair?
    I don't think that we even--
    I mean, that was the last you would think.
    I mean, it was--
    you didn't know what happened.
    I mean, you are standing in a place
    where are showers, which could be gas or water.
    They shave you.
    There are men who are raping the women or whatever,
    and they are--
    Were you-- were you assaulted?
    No.
    But that's the last thing which I mean--
    you are stripped of your identity, of everything.
    So it's not that I would look and say, look, you look well
    or what.
    What were the barracks like?
    Where did you sleep in Auschwitz?
    I have only a memory of it.
    Because in Theresienstadt, most of them
    were stone, old barracks for soldiers.
    But at least it has--
    it was not so cold or whatever.
    This was one-- three beds, or I don't know how many,
    whether three or four.
    And I think they were wooden barracks probably put up there.
    And mud everywhere.
    Did you have a blanket?
    I think there was or wasn't.
    I don't know.
    I don't know.
    But I went-- that must be now like 10 years.
    We were in Munich with my husband,
    and I went to see Dachau.
    And it looked so clean.
    You know, which is untrue.
    I mean, that's the whole thing, that it doesn't--
    it doesn't look so bad.
    Did you work in Auschwitz?
    No, no.
    Because we read the whole time standing somewhere,
    Zahlappell or whatever.
    Just standing and standing and standing.
    Yeah, yeah, yeah.
    No, I think we were by that time marked either for extinction
    or for work in Germany.
    What did you talk about with your sister?
    We didn't talk.
    I mean, you can't.
    Even if we talk, I have no memory anymore.
    But we came 2 and 1/2 thousand, and only like 200
    of that went to the right side.
    So that's a little bit, you know, concentrates your mind.
    And the smell of the burning flesh?
    I mean, you can't.
    You can't start to do soul searching or whatever.
    I think that we were in absolute shock.
    So then you were there for a few weeks.
    I think, but I cannot--
    that I cannot vouch for how long.
    And then how-- you said you got these new clogs
    or these new shoes, because you were told
    you were going to be sent somewhere else.
    Well, that was part of it, that they
    were processing us for that.
    And we were sent then to a place which at that time
    the Germans were kind of very good about it,
    that every factory in Germany had slave labor.
    Therefore it's such a nonsense to say we didn't know.
    There wasn't a place which didn't have a factory.
    And there wasn't a factory which didn't have slave labor.
    And we were sent to a munition factory,
    to a small place near Sachsen, Chemnitz, which
    is in East Germany.
    If you don't mind, I just want to back up a little bit.
    Do you know which barrack you were in,
    in Auschwitz, the number?
    No, I don't know.
    And also, were you getting your period then?
    No, I was having it.
    I remember when we went to the first Zahlappell, and stopped
    and never got it till I got back to Prague.
    Neither of us.
    I think that was one of the things which--
    just never the whole eight months or whatever.
    When you were in Auschwitz, did you see the men,
    or was it strictly women that you were with?
    Well, in the barracks were women,
    but there were these kapos everywhere.
    There were men somehow.
    I don't know.
    Other men prisoners?
    No, I don't think so.
    No, I don't think that we saw them.
    I don't know, but I don't think so.
    Did you?
    I know you said you didn't have really a chance
    to talk too much, but were the older women
    helpful to the younger women?
    Was there any kind of support that--
    There were no older women.
    They were dead.
    If you are older, you are gassed.
    Well, when I meant older I meant 26, 27-year-olds.
    You know, were they of support to the 18 and 19-Year-olds?
    I don't think so.
    What about sharing of food and--
    No.
    There was nothing to share.
    All right, then as you said, you left.
    And you were at this first labor camp.
    Yeah.
    Then what?
    That was like probably the building.
    I don't know what it was once.
    And--
    You said this was near where?
    Sachsen Chemnitz.
    How far from Auschwitz?
    How long?
    Oh, that's in East Germany.
    In East Germany.
    Yeah.
    I now remember that the train went through Dresden.
    We didn't see, but somebody who was near the window--
    Was this another cattle car?
    Yeah.
    That Dresden is in ruins.
    Because when we were going to Auschwitz,
    Dresden was standing.
    And this was after the bombing.
    And later today it was such a pleasure.
    Till today, the Americans have a terrible conscience about it,
    and I still don't know what they are so sorry about.
    I mean, after all, the Germans bombed Coventry first.
    But it is in East Germany.
    That I know, because I couldn't go there after the war,
    because it was under communistic domain.
    Again, the three of you, your friend is still with you?
    Yeah.
    So you arrived there?
    Yeah, and we had an SS woman who was a commander.
    I don't know whether she was there from the beginning.
    You mean coming with you from Auschwitz?
    No, no.
    She was at the camp.
    Perhaps she was coming with us, but I don't know.
    That I don't know.
    She was I think the sister of Elsa Koch.
    And she took two girls to be her special kind
    of maids-in-waiting.
    And we were getting--
    unfortunately, that was bad for me, because my sister and--
    they were putting two people always in one bunker.
    They were three kind of one above the other.
    And I was in a different than [? Elena ?] was.
    And she got with [? Sarah. ?] And I
    was got it with somebody else, that another Czech girl.
    And we were then working in a factory
    which was nearby, making anti-aircraft kind
    of ammunition.
    And there were already some of the other prisoners.
    I know that there were some Polish women.
    Then there were very few who were really there
    because they were really criminals.
    And they had the best life.
    They had much better--
    got more food and everything.
    Because they were only criminals.
    And one thing which was--
    that we had always a German civilian master at the factory
    or whatever, who had to show you what
    to do and to see whether you do it right, because it had--
    it was working with machinery.
    And he was nearly-- to everybody always they
    would whisper to all of us always,
    you know, I used to be a Social Democrat,
    and tell perhaps even knew what the BBC is saying.
    But I remember that he was saying my last son,
    I had three sons, and two are already dead, died
    at Stalingrad and at this one.
    And this one is joining.
    He's 16, joining the army.
    And one of our girls said, Oh, I'm sorry.
    And he said, what are you sorry about?
    He's fighting for Hitler.
    So I mean, you know, what they today say, how they didn't know
    and everything?
    They liked him as long as he was winning the war.
    And only the funny religious sects, they were kind of--
    there was one who--
    the girl who worked on his machine was a Dutch girl.
    And she had TB before already.
    And he said that he belongs to some--
    I don't know which sect it was.
    It was I think Christian sect, but not the normal Protestant
    or whatever or perhaps.
    And he said, "look, I don't believe in Hitler.
    I don't believe in this, that, whatever,
    and I will bring you some more food.
    I bring you some."
    and she said, "I wouldn't take anything from a German."
    And she didn't.
    He begged her.
    She didn't.
    But there we were really hungry, also.
    Because that was already--
    we got twice a day soup.
    The soup for lunch was only water.
    And if there was one piece of potato floating, we were lucky.
    In the evening, it had like two or three.
    Not potatoes, pieces of potato, or Kurbis, or something
    like that floating there.
    And one piece of bread.
    No salt. And that was a terrible thing.
    They didn't have German salt. And they had for themselves,
    but by that time, they lost Romania, and they didn't--
    And that was really [? starving. ?]
    We decided that--
    I think we didn't work one day a week.
    We had to stand at Zahlappells.
    But then I think we work either half a day
    or not the whole day.
    And we decided, which was absolutely
    against all the rules and you could
    be shot for that, that we somewhere
    stole a piece of Brot.
    And we saved the last three days this one piece of bread.
    And on that day when we worked less
    or we were allowed to get together--
    I don't anymore remember whether it was that we did--
    we ate it like ladies, not fast.
    So that was our revenge on the Germans.
    And I remember there was one woman who was pregnant.
    And they sent her, of course, to another camp to be gassed.
    We never saw her again.
    I mean, and I got once sick.
    And that was one of the Polish women who came.
    They put me in a--
    There was a room, but they had no nothing.
    They had nothing, but you could go to that place
    if you were sick.
    And I had high temperature, but I probably
    wanted just to give up or whatever.
    And she came, this Polish woman.
    And she was singing to me Yiddish songs.
    I didn't know Yiddish, but if you know German,
    so it's not that far.
    It was-- and the only thing that was
    "get up, get up, and get out of here," which
    again probably saved my life.
    Because they didn't keep you there long.
    They sent you to--
    I think it was Flossenburg, which
    we belonged to, which had the gas or whatever, shooting
    or whatever.
    I mean, we were too small.
    We were like--
    I don't know whether we were 500,
    but it was a small, small camp.
    It was really--
    Of women only?
    Yeah, yeah.
    Only women.
    I don't know this Polish women.
    I think they were--
    the Russian women were in--
    they were for years, and gypsies in Auschwitz.
    They were not Jews.
    They were the prisoners of war or whatever.
    How was it to see dead bodies?
    For you?
    I don't know whether I saw them.
    Either in Auschwitz or?
    I don't know.
    I don't think I saw them.
    No, in this camp they sent that that
    execute whatever was done somewhere else, in a proper so
    to say.
    We were the labor.
    We were the spin off of that.
    Like a satellite camp?
    Yeah, yeah, yeah.
    So you went to work?
    Yes, we worked long hours.
    There was always one SS or two--
    I don't remember-- sitting in that place where we worked.
    You know, watching.
    I don't know what they were watching, really.
    But that was only because they didn't trust even each other,
    because there were only otherwise
    a German supervisor, who had to be there if something went bad
    with the machinery.
    And I can't tell you whether the machinery was modern or old,
    because I wouldn't know till today.
    And also what was the relationship between the women,
    different aged women?
    I don't know why you are--
    at this point, there was not really
    such a difference in age.
    Because the older, they were dead.
    They were not there.
    Well, as I said, when I mean older, I mean maybe late 20s.
    I'm not talking about older, older but like a 10 year
    difference in age.
    Yeah, but you don't-- if you are reduced to--
    I mean, those, I think--
    you don't-- I don't know why would be there any kind.
    I mean, talking about what?
    Nobody talked too much.
    We had no opportunity, also.
    We worked and went to sleep and got up at 6:00 or five.
    I don't know when it was.
    And I think it was--
    Did they give you anything to eat in the morning?
    I think there was kind of so-called coffee.
    Not coffee but whatever.
    I don't have a memory of that.
    But we worked like 12 hours a day.
    So that is not--
    Were you allowed to talk while you were working?
    No, you were not working with somebody.
    Next to someone else.
    Yeah.
    And you also had where you asked to go to the bathroom,
    you had to ask a German sitting there, which
    were in the same kind of environment of toilets.
    So it was not that you went somewhere else,
    but even that was like, you could go once in the morning
    and once in the afternoon, whatever.
    Had you lost a lot of weight?
    Yes.
    I'm sure, because when we came back, we were skeletons.
    But I didn't have the clothes to find out.
    When you would look at your sister,
    would you look and feel like you were looking at yourself,
    and this is why I must look?
    No, I have no memory that I would be thinking "I look
    terrible" or "I look well."
    Because that wasn't in your making anymore.
    That was-- I think that everything else shuts off.
    And it was not that on Sunday we were going to visit somebody,
    so therefore I should look decent.
    And then how long did you stay there?
    It must have been--
    first of all, we had no calendar, so we don't know.
    We had no watches.
    We had no calendar.
    We had nothing.
    But I know that we were during Hitler's birthday,
    on 20th of April '45, in one of those--
    being dragged from nowhere to nowhere.
    Because the Russian--
    You had left this place by then?
    It slowly started to peter even into the camp
    that English occupied Bergen-Belsen
    The Americans are I don't know where,
    and the Russians were nearing.
    This was East Germany.
    And they were suddenly-- even the SS started to look very
    funny, because the Russians, I think,
    were nearing the Sachsen--
    Sachsen Chemnitz.
    And to be SS women in the camp wasn't the best profession
    for them.
    And they tried to get rid of us, which is not
    that easy as it sounds if you don't have the gas
    chambers or whatever.
    And somehow this Elsa Koch's sister, I mean,
    because she had clout and everything--
    This is tape two, side B, and you were talking about--
    Yeah, she somehow got out of them
    that they will try to get the train for evacuating us.
    So that were this time open cattle wagons.
    And first they wanted us to get us
    to one camp, which then was occupied by some already.
    I think that was like Bergen-Belsen
    and the English were there.
    And so they decided on something else,
    and the Americans were there.
    And I remember that at one--
    the American Air Force must have been which did the strafing.
    You know, when the Germans flat and left us there to stay,
    and one of our people was clever enough and said bend over that
    they can see the [? KZ ?] big on [? that. ?]
    Whether they really could or not, I don't know.
    But they did not strafe us.
    This is here in these open cars?
    Yeah, yeah, yeah.
    And you know, those were the planes which get very--
    Come down low.
    Yeah.
    And so the Germans came back.
    And then in the end, they wanted-- because the German
    SS wanted to run for their life, they
    had a dream they would go to Italy.
    Because they told to one of the girls who worked for them
    that they want to go to Italy.
    And so they wanted to get rid of us.
    They couldn't find the camp, because they were--
    And again, I don't know how long we were there.
    For days.
    In this open cattle car?
    Yeah.
    Any food?
    They once gave us something.
    I remember a piece of bread or whatever.
    That I remember.
    And they at least wanted to get us to Theresienstadt.
    Theresienstadt head of the Germans
    didn't want that, because he said
    I have the Red Cross sitting here around the corner,
    waiting to walk in.
    And I'm telling them that nothing ever happened.
    And now you are sending me people with everything.
    We had typhoid, and the other typhoid, and this one,
    and that one, and without hair, and with lice and fleas.
    Because-- but in the end, he gave in.
    And we were the second transport who went back.
    And that was--
    I remember that we who knew what Theresienstadt, what
    it is about, were very happy about it, and kind of,
    let's hold together, because we were really on a point of--
    And so the Germans being Germans,
    very nicely, came and said, "do you see the smoke there?
    That's from the people you thought you left behind."
    Now, the Germans were burning their files,
    which we didn't know.
    Because apparently they put the files
    to Theresien, which was clever.
    Nobody of the Allies would bomb it.
    So that's what they were burning.
    They had no gas chamber, but they told us, oh, they
    built the gas chambers.
    And so when we staggered out-- and we were both quite sick.
    We had diphtheria and everything.
    I mean, it was kind of a--
    probably another day or whatever, and--
    And I saw somebody whom I knew.
    And I said, where are my parents?
    And this man said, in a very whispery voice,
    "they will be here soon."
    And I thought that that's true, then they are dead.
    They were sent-- because the Germans said there
    was a transport after you.
    We somehow were surviving with that, that my parents are safe,
    and we will go back home, home.
    And they were saying, I mean, there was another transporter.
    There is another gas chamber or whatever.
    And what happened was that apparently this man was
    greeting everybody, lost voice.
    Couldn't talk anymore.
    And anyhow, I saw then mother and father
    was hiding somewhere, because he was so scared that it's not
    true that we are in that transport or whatever.
    So and--
    So you had this reunion with them?
    Yeah.
    And that's why actually I have no [INAUDIBLE]
    because the first thing came somebody who was a doctor,
    who my parents knew and said you know, you look at--
    and he said first they burned everything.
    Which was true, because that's where typhoid gets around,
    is by lice and fleas, and that was everywhere.
    Did you yourself have lice?
    Oh, yeah.
    But that's why I don't-- you know, everybody said,
    didn't you keep the uniform or whatever?
    You know, what we had.
    And for us, it was like the end of the war.
    It wasn't, but it was, though.
    And it was the beginning of May, though.
    And came, I think, the first of [INAUDIBLE]..
    In every of those country it came a little bit different,
    but the Red Cross was really mixed up.
    So your parents stayed in--
    They--
    The whole time?
    Yeah, yeah, yeah.
    Do you remember that, seeing them for the first time?
    Oh, it was incredible, incredible.
    And I must say that Theresienstadt again, I mean,
    you know that's why, for me, for instance, it's
    so difficult to comprehend how this country treats refugees
    or whatever.
    Because when the transports started
    to come back to Theresienstadt, Theresienstadt as such
    decided they have to get double portion of food.
    We don't need to eat.
    We were here.
    I mean, in everything, that somehow people
    acted like human beings and not like pigs.
    What condition were your parents in?
    Well, better than we were.
    I mean, that's true.
    But I don't think we even--
    we were so glad to--
    and the war was nearly over.
    I mean, it was--
    I mean, you felt that the Red Cross was--
    Your parents recognized you, even
    though you must have looked very different than when you were--
    Oh, come on.
    That's not--
    [LAUGHTER]
    That was never a question.
    Even though you said you looked very different.
    No, I didn't say I looked different.
    I don't know how I looked.
    You said you had lost a lot of weight.
    Yeah, but I don't know how I looked.
    But still, I mean, I didn't get blue eyes.
    I didn't get--
    So then did you stay with them once you saw them?
    Yes, yes.
    You were able to live with them?
    Yeah.
    And then what were those days like?
    What did you--
    I don't remember.
    I mean, it's--
    You stayed with them until when?
    I think-- our luck actually was that because a lot of people
    died of this, if they were liberated then immediately
    in a normal place, where they get the food which they wanted
    here was not enough food, so that they could start to feed
    the food which they had, which was again not--
    no fat, no butter, no real meat or whatever.
    So that probably saved us.
    And then we were liberated.
    Then the Russians were marching around Theresienstadt.
    So my sister and I decided that we will take the Russians
    and go to Prague.
    Told that to parents, you wait here.
    We are going.
    And there was already [? cows, ?]
    I mean in the German line, so that we
    could get to the Russians.
    And they were--
    And there came a Czech teams were
    coming from Bohemia to Theresienstadt
    with medical help.
    You know, so that one of them was
    a young man whose mother was originally White Russian
    or whatever.
    He spoke Russian, so we said to him, look,
    you help us to explain to the Russians
    that they should take us to Prague.
    So he did.
    They were kind of horse-driven carriages with old men.
    They were opening tins, which were American tins,
    to give us to eat.
    And after, I think, two hours sitting in hay,
    we came to a town which was like five miles away.
    So we went to a nice young, good-looking kind of officer,
    who spoke some language.
    I think he spoke German or I don't know what he spoke.
    Because we didn't speak Russian.
    And explained that we want to go to Prague on something faster.
    So he said OK.
    And he put us each on a lorry, and told his people--
    he was a commanding officer--
    that they must give us enough room.
    And that was fighting army still--
    to lie down, because we are coming from a concentration
    camp.
    But they mustn't touch us.
    And we didn't know that the Russian-- we
    thought these are our saviors.
    Yeah.
    And we were very lucky.
    I mean, quite frankly.
    And he would from every half an hour or whatever, every hour,
    stop the whole column of the lorries.
    And those were trucks which were, I'm sure, American.
    Nothing was Russian at that time in the Russian Army.
    And he would stop them to ask us,
    whether we are doing all right.
    And we didn't know what's [? better. ?] We said yeah.
    And when we came to a certain point near Prague,
    he again stopped and said now, look, we are going to Vienna,
    because we are still a fighting army, Austria.
    And don't you want to come with us?
    Otherwise, you have to get off.
    And we said, no, we are going home.
    But he said, have you ever been to Vienna?
    We said, no.
    He said, so Prague will be there.
    That's a Russian attitude to life.
    I mean, that had nothing to do with communism.
    I mean, that kind of "what is a few years between friends?"
    And so we said no.
    So he gave to everybody a carton of cigarettes.
    And we said, look, we don't smoke.
    And he said, that's gold.
    That's money.
    Take it.
    So we took it.
    I think he gave us two cartons.
    Well, we were standing on the road,
    and everything was going by.
    The Russians then came with some, again,
    horse carriage with a big Italian flag,
    Italian former prisoners of war going from Germany home.
    So we said, are you going through Prague?
    Yes.
    Will you give us a lift?
    Yes, but you give us cigarettes.
    I mean, that was so Italian.
    They took it away immediately.
    And they got us up to Prague.
    They were-- then Prague was just after their uprising,
    so that nothing worked.
    No trams, no nothing, because they made barricades out
    of them.
    So we had to walk through the whole Prague.
    But by that time, we walked on air and went--
    in the house where we used to live,
    my parents' best friends who were not Jewish were living.
    So that we went there, because we
    didn't know who else from the relatives is alive
    and who is not.
    And--
    You said you felt like you were walking on air.
    Yeah, we were.
    What did that mean to you?
    Well, nothing can happen.
    I mean, you know, this is a--
    that's real life, and nothing can happen to us.
    And it was that because we must have been--
    we were certainly weak.
    We must have been certainly tired,
    but we walked through today--
    I mean, you know, Prague is not that small.
    But if somebody leaves you over in the airport and we
    go to the other side.
    But I have a feeling that it was two seconds.
    You know, you flew over.
    In probably in a month they said to me, go around the corner.
    How?
    I have no car!
    There is no tram!
    And so--
    So you're back at your house, your family home.
    No, my family was not home.
    No, you went back to your family home, you said.
    It was an apartment.
    Oh, it was an apartment.
    OK.
    Apartment house, and in the same house
    the best friends of my parents lived.
    Right.
    Who stayed there the whole--
    I mean, we hope that they stayed there, but they did the whole--
    they were non-Jewish, and they were
    saving, which my mother gave them to save a few things.
    Like not the gold or not the silver.
    Not, not the pictures.
    No.
    A dress for a debutante party for [? Elena ?] and me.
    That's some sh--
    [LAUGHTER]
    I don't know.
    You know, the thing is that--
    today, it's absolutely ridiculous,
    but probably when it happened, it's very important.
    What about what will they wear when they go to a debutante--
    So there was a great homecoming after.
    The first thing this lady--
    that first thing you think about,
    then I started to call whoever is still here.
    I mean, which was very few.
    And I remember that there in the tub, which
    was my first tub in two years, I got back my period.
    And then she came, a cousin, who was only half-Jewish.
    So she said nothing happened to my aunt who
    was not Jewish at all, another aunt who was not Jewish.
    I mean, you know that they were coming,
    and everybody was crying, and everybody was [INAUDIBLE]..
    I think that's by now enough.
    Not?
    I go back a bit.
    So how long did you stay there?
    Where?
    In Prague, at your apartment.
    Till 1949.
    OK, your parents then came?
    Yes.
    You and your sister had come back to the apartment,
    and then--
    Well, we were together.
    When I say "I."
    Right.
    No, right.
    But then your parents--
    My parents came and officially was
    I think in a week time or whatever.
    OK.
    And we got then our old apartment back,
    of course with German furniture.
    Horrible.
    Because some German lived there.
    And the worst part was then looking
    for the people who didn't come back and never will come back.
    Except there was one great thing.
    I was walking--
    Prague had no transportation for quite some time,
    because at the end of the war, when they had the uprising,
    they made barricades out of the stone streets and so on.
    And I was walking somewhere, and I met somebody
    whom I knew in Theresienstadt.
    So that's what we were all of us basically
    doing, walking around, looking kind of who's coming back,
    and where were you, and did you see this one and so on.
    So after greeting I said, well, where were you?
    And he said, well, after Auschwitz I was in Majdanek.
    And I said, oh, yes, my uncle was there, and he died there.
    And he said, which one?
    And so I told him.
    And he said, no, he's alive.
    And I said, that's nonsense, because he wrote
    to his wife a smuggled letter--
    and the wife was in Prague.
    I mean, she was not Jewish--
    that he got sepsis, and you know,
    that there were no antibiotics or no nothing,
    and that he's dying, and goodbye.
    And he said, yes, except what you don't know
    is that the next day we were liberated by the Russians,
    and they put him in the hospital,
    and gave him whatever it was necessary,
    and he is very much alive.
    I said, so where he is?
    Said, with the Czech [? army ?] in Slovakia.
    And he honestly couldn't get--
    he was trying to call, and trying to mail a letter,
    and nothing worked.
    I mean, it was another--
    I don't know-- a week that I ran home.
    I said to mother, you now sit down
    and I will tell you good news.
    So I told her, and she cried, and then
    she called that aunt, because it was her brother.
    And out of her--
    all the relatives, she had one other sister
    or two other sister who died in Auschwitz.
    One brother was in England during the war.
    So he was OK.
    And this one and the third one, again died.
    So that except-- and her parents died in Auschwitz.
    So that's the-- and their children.
    [? These ?] are everybody, so--
    And so that was a great news.
    You know, so she went over to the aunt.
    But otherwise, they were not too many.
    We were sitting at that time mostly at the radio,
    and they would interrupt programs
    saying that in that concentration camp was
    liberated in Austria or in Germany,
    and those and those of Czech origin are there.
    Because there was no other way how to find out who is alive.
    And we-- I remember that we came really nothing.
    I was wearing a pair of father's shoes.
    Somebody gave me some pair of pants.
    And I mean, we had-- we came as--
    we had absolutely nothing.
    And in Prague, the shops were empty.
    And so that you had to go to some authority
    and ask for a permit to get somewhere a pair of shoes,
    and a pair of this one, or a pair of that one.
    So I went and they said, well, we don't have shoes.
    I would give you a pair, but-
    And I said but look, I am wearing
    man's shoes, which are two or three sizes too big for me.
    And he said, no, if you wear it until now, you
    will survive another month.
    So then-- because there was nothing in the [? country. ?]
    I mean, there were peasants who would
    take some of the bourgeoisie things for some food
    or whatever.
    I mean, the things which my mother saved
    and the friend of ours came for, there was nothing.
    I mean, especially for people who
    didn't for now for a long time had the connection
    with the black market.
    Did you go back to school or?
    We could-- they put through a law
    that you can try for the class where you belong,
    but you have to take the exams.
    And that they will have cramming sessions
    through the whole summer.
    And if you pass, you pass.
    If not, you go, you repeat the class.
    And we would have, my sister and I,
    being at the end of the high school.
    So we had to cram four years into the three months, which
    we did.
    I think what I today don't know about physics
    would fill the Smithsonian.
    I mean, because there were certain which
    started when we already were not in school, about chemistry,
    physics.
    I mean, really, they really tried their best.
    I remember this.
    I had really to promise I will never go to study,
    that I will go to study law or some literature,
    or whatever it is, but not chemistry.
    Which we did.
    Because it started that in October.
    Because the university was closed by the Germans anyhow.
    And so that we were able to finish,
    I remember, that my parents sent us first thing to a doctor.
    The doctor said, look, they should go SOMEWHERE
    to some place.
    Because otherwise they will get mental breakdowns.
    They said we have no time.
    I mean, you know that's--
    And so we did the schooling in whatever time
    it was then and however.
    And were able to go to the University
    And what did you study in the university?
    I started with law, and which--
    it bored me.
    And then opposite the philosophical faculty
    was a marvelous professor who was
    lecturing on the French literature, whatever.
    So I changed.
    Both of us.
    I changed for comparative literature.
    And then you completed-- did you complete your university?
    No, because then the communists came and threw me out
    because I was of bourgeois origin.
    What did you do?
    Well, before we got out, because then
    I landed in a communistic jail.
    And--
    Why did they put you in jail?
    Because I was one of the--
    I was a secretary of the Social Democratic Student Association.
    And we prepared the demonstration against--
    the student demonstration, which was
    the only demonstration, which the Czech were
    able to put together.
    And we were firstly thrown out of the--
    they came in-- of the university.
    We were four of us.
    Because of-- and I remember that a professor of Soviet--
    sorry, of Russian literature, who
    was an elderly gentleman and always a communist.
    I mean, not a new one, one of those intellectual,
    but always was--
    went to plead with me--
    with them, with the communistic kind of.
    And they said, comrade, that's our business, not yours.
    And they said I'm of bourgeois origin and out.
    And that was bad, because it was like
    with the Germans a little bit, that if you didn't have
    the piece of paper what you do, they
    could send you to wash the windows, which
    is a very kind of what they liked very much--
    window washing from elements like us.
    I mean, today, when Havel took power there
    and all the great painters there and the writers
    were window washers under communists.
    I don't know, but I went once also window washing.
    After all you had been through before that--
    Any--
    No,no, no.
    But after all you had been through, being in jail,
    was that a very difficult?
    Yes, because you cannot repeat the experience twice.
    You know what can happen.
    That's a frightening thing.
    Because somehow it was not they will get me out
    and this is nonsense, and you know, I'm [? no ?] German.
    It's more that you know what can happen.
    When the first time you don't, your whole kind of whatever it
    is, it's revolting that this cannot be happening
    and something.
    It won't last or whatever.
    But twice you can't go through that.
    So when I got out, which was like--
    they caught somebody who was running over the border,
    and he had the names of us, so that we were all
    taken in more like two weeks, three
    weeks in the prison in Prague.
    But they did some interrogations, the 10 people
    sitting interrogating you.
    And--
    What was that like for you?
    That was frightening, because they knew a lot.
    You didn't look-- in a non-free regime,
    everybody is guilty of something.
    But you want to pretend that you are not,
    but you don't know what they know.
    I mean, it's not that you know--
    I didn't steal a piece of bread.
    I probably whispered to somebody that I don't like communist
    or whatever it is.
    And so that you know that they know something about you,
    but you don't know what.
    This is tape three, side A.
    And when I came home, I know that
    for months, a friend of mine--
    the first thing he said to me is, you will feel paranoid.
    I said, not I. He said, you just wait.
    And he was absolutely right.
    For months, I felt, when I heard a car, that--
    because they told you, we are letting you out.
    But we keep our tabs, because they
    wanted that you sign with them that you will be their spy.
    And that's a very--
    and some people did it.
    I mean, I know somebody who did it, actually,
    because he told us that he signed it, that-- you know.
    And that was a kind of common knowledge--
    that if you do not believe them, don't--
    but I was scared stiff for months
    when I heard a car stop that that's
    them coming for me, because I didn't sign that.
    And--
    Were you able to go back to school?
    No, I was already out of the--
    You had already finished.
    No, out of-- because they threw me out of the university
    that I was a bourgeois originator.
    Right.
    So you could not re-enter.
    Oh, know.
    That, you can't.
    No, no.
    That, they take seriously.
    So what did you do then?
    Oh, father found me a job with another architect.
    I hated that, because it was drawing.
    And at that time, today, everything
    would be done on a computer.
    But at that time, you had to draw.
    It was so boring.
    And we went to Israel then, because that
    was the last country they would allow.
    Now, what year are we talking about?
    '49.
    So you stayed in Prague until '49.
    And then where--
    Well, the communists came in '48.
    And so we went in '49.
    The whole family, the four of you?
    Yes, because that time, the Czech--
    I mean, the communists, whether the Russian, all of them
    believed that Israel will go into their camp.
    So they allowed.
    That was a-- because we had, at that time, visas to Canada.
    And they wouldn't allow us to leave
    for Canada, which I am very thankful today,
    since I saw Canada.
    But--
    What was it like for you to leave Czechoslovakia?
    Well, everybody was kind of--
    my generation, leaving illegally--
    in jail.
    It was a big upheaval.
    It was.
    And I had no idea about what--
    the Czechs really were very good to Israel, so it was not that.
    But we knew nothing, really.
    And--
    Did you have any affinity for Israel
    before you went over, any--
    No.
    --emotional connection?
    No, not really.
    I mean, for any brave country which is fighting for its life,
    I don't think that I really--
    you know.
    You didn't feel any Jewish connection to Israel.
    No.
    I don't know.
    I mean, that's too much to say, didn't, but kind of.
    If it were not for the communistic thing overall,
    I would feel that's very nice for them.
    If they need Israel, that's fine with me, but not for me.
    If only everything changed.
    What did you--
    That was a typical Herzl product.
    So where did you settle in Israel, and for how long?
    Well, we didn't.
    We came.
    We went again ahead.
    My parents went one transport back.
    And first of all, we staged nearly a strike,
    because we were able to buy tickets up to Bari.
    And then we had to go on a Israeli ship.
    Though we went first class to Bari.
    And then we get on a terrible ship.
    So first thing is I'm looking out of the window.
    And there are the Israeli sailors.
    So I say-- they have the Star of David, or whatever.
    So I say, what language?
    They said, German.
    So I said, OK, [GERMAN] is Israel?
    What kind of a country is Israel?
    It was a sailor.
    The first Israeli I meet says in Yiddish, [YIDDISH]..
    The country is nice, but the people--
    so that was my introduction, which is marvelous
    when you think about it.
    And then they put us on a ship, which probably was not supposed
    to run for the last 40 years.
    And they were trying to put us down.
    And the Hungarians will go up on the deck.
    And we started also Czech saying, well, why?
    We have here some pregnant women.
    I mean, it was not a nice thing to do.
    So it is, so the captain said.
    So we said, so we don't go.
    So then they came and said, OK, the pregnant women can.
    I don't know.
    Probably the captain was a Hungarian.
    And we went to one of those transit camps
    near Haifa, where there were 10,000 people and two latrines.
    And I don't know why-- first of all, they put us in a tent
    with 10 people.
    That was much [INAUDIBLE].
    How much?
    We knew we were only Czechs there.
    Comes the evening, so we start to put one bed over the other
    to reach the top to close the opening.
    And comes an Israeli and says, what are you doing?
    We said, we are closing the opening.
    He said, you will choke.
    Its June.
    I said, what about if it rains?
    And he says, it won't rain.
    And he's a typical Israeli.
    He knows it will not rain.
    I mean, we knew nothing, so we choked.
    Next day, we took the chances, and we found out
    it will not rain.
    And then that was Alena who found out--
    she said, there must be a doctor.
    And where is a doctor will be a decent lavatory.
    So we marched every day.
    And years afterwards, I would meet somebody who said,
    I remember you from the bed only because you
    were the one who, while we were marching behind you,
    the girls know where to go.
    They look like they are clean.
    And then of course, from there, we would try to look for jobs.
    That was a time when Israel--
    600,000 people took in one million refugees.
    And we both got a job in the airport, in the hotel.
    So she wouldn't forget me.
    So you looked for a job, you said.
    But there was--
    We found then--
    Alena was the first one who found a job.
    They gave her a pushcart, which went
    to every plane coming and going, with Jews and whatever.
    And so she said to the owner that, but I have a sister.
    So they gave me a job.
    I was probably the unskilled worker in a bookkeeping office.
    They didn't have a machine.
    I had to add the sums the whole day.
    But it was a job.
    And how long did you stay there in Israel?
    I stayed there probably for two years, whatever it was.
    And then I got myself a ticket to London.
    A friend of ours, who was head of Swiss Air-- he was a Czech,
    originally--
    gave me a free ticket.
    And I went to London that I would do something.
    I went to school there a little bit, and wanted to--
    was trying to get a scholarship to one of the universities.
    So since that time, I became a western person who I said,
    Little Doggie [BELL NOISE].
    Yes.
    Yes.
    Yes.
    And so you went--
    how long were you in London?
    I was over a year.
    Three years, I think.
    And then I went back to Israel.
    And then I got a job with somebody
    that I came the first time to this country.
    Then I married the first husband.
    Then I married the second husband.
    And then I'm here.
    So you've been living in the United States on and off.
    On and off since 1956, because with my first husband,
    we lived also in London.
    He was an American.
    He was a film producer at one time.
    I lived everywhere in the Western world.
    Can we talk before we end just a little bit about some
    of your thoughts after what you had gone through because you
    were Jewish?
    Has that influenced your feelings about--
    About what?
    --being Jewish in any way?
    Has it changed?
    Did it make you more aware?
    Did it--
    Oh, I'm-- yes.
    I am very aware that I am Jewish.
    And I think Israel did it much more.
    I think I am the typical product of [INAUDIBLE]..
    They will come when they need.
    But it's a great country.
    And I think that Israel did much more for me than--
    Even though you went through what
    you went through because you were Jewish.
    Yeah, but that's negative.
    The Israeli experience is positive.
    Are there any sights or smells today
    that remind you of some of your experiences during the war?
    Yeah, there are smells.
    Oh, I can't tell you which and when.
    But there are.
    Do you get reparations?
    Yes, I get-- because the Czechs can get only for health.
    But Czechs don't get like the Germans.
    The Germans get-- the former Germans get big reparations.
    So we don't get.
    But we get something.
    I get every month something.
    How do you feel about getting reparations?
    I feel they owe me much more than they are paying.
    I don't have any kind of this hang-ups,
    because it's not what was negotiated.
    It was not blood money.
    It's not for life.
    It's not that they will pay you--
    you lost so many, and so many, we will pay you
    so much, and so on, because the Germans
    got it so-called for loss of their earning capacity,
    or whatever.
    And we get-- it's like what you have here from insurances.
    So I don't feel that--
    Did it make a difference, going through what
    you did go through, having your sister there?
    I'm sure.
    I'm sure.
    Was that a source of strength for you?
    I'm sure.
    In what way?
    I can't tell you.
    But I'm sure, because one of the worst things
    is that you are a lonely person.
    I'm sorry.
    I think he wants to go out.
    Come, [DOG'S NAME].
    Besides being with your sister, what
    do you think kept you going in this terrible, terrible time?
    I really don't know.
    But I think it's a natural human instinct
    that you want to survive.
    I think it's one of the strongest instinct.
    Do you and your sister talk about your experiences?
    No, not really.
    And did she follow your--
    in coming with you to the United States?
    She was here before.
    Her husband had to come here for something.
    So she went-- no, she lives in Switzerland now.
    So she never settled in the United States.
    No.
    No.
    No.
    I'm sorry.
    That's the back.
    Have you talked about your experiences much to others?
    Not really.
    No.
    Here and there, but not really.
    No.
    Is there anything you wanted to add
    that we haven't talked about?
    I don't think so.
    No.
    No.
    No.
    But you transcribe it, or will they transcribe it?
    Well, we can talk about that later.
    OK, well, I want to thank you very
    much for doing the interview.
    We appreciate very much what you did.
    Thanks.
    Yeah.
    No.
    This concludes the interview of Irena Kirkland.
    It took place on June 26, 1996 in Washington, DC.
    And it was conducted by Gail Schwartz
    on behalf of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Overview

    Interview Summary
    Irena Neumann discusses her childhood in Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); not having a Jewish identity or religious education; evacuating Prague before the Munich Agreement; returning to the city and learning she was Jewish; adapting to restrictions placed on Jews; her feelings about wearing the yellow star; being deported to Theresienstadt with her family; daily life in the camp; contracting encephalitis; being deported to Auschwitz; conditions in camps Auschwitz and Sachsen Chemnitz; returning to Theresienstadt in May 1945; reuniting with her parents; liberation by Russian soldiers; returning to Prague; beginning university; being arrested and released by communists; and immigrating to the United States in 1956.
    Interviewee
    Irena Kirkland
    Interviewer
    Gail Schwartz
    Date
    interview:  1996 June 26
    Geography
    creation: Washington (D.C.)

    Physical Details

    Language
    English
    Extent
    3 sound cassettes (60 min.).

    Rights & Restrictions

    Conditions on Access
    There are no known restrictions on access to this material.
    Conditions on Use
    No restrictions on use

    Keywords & Subjects

    Administrative Notes

    Legal Status
    Permanent Collection
    Provenance
    Gail Schwartz, a volunteer for the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Oral History branch conducted this interview on June 26, 1996 in Washington, DC. The interview was transferred to the Archives on June 26, 1996.
    Funding Note
    The cataloging of this oral history interview has been supported by a grant from the Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany.
    Record last modified:
    2023-11-16 08:12:01
    This page:
    https:​/​/collections.ushmm.org​/search​/catalog​/irn507521

    Additional Resources

    Transcripts (3)
    Summary (English)
    Time Coded Notes (4)

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    Also in United States Holocaust Memorial Museum oral history volunteer collection

    Consists of interviews with Holocaust survivors and concentration camp liberators conducted by United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Oral History Department volunteer staff. The interviewees, among them survivors from Hungary, Germany, Austria, France, Italy, and Poland, discuss their experiences of life before World War II, life in the ghettos, life in concentration camps, and life after the Holocaust.

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    Oral history interview with Joseph Elman

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    Oral history interview with Gerald Rosenstein

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    Oral history interview with Romana Koplewicz

    Oral History

    Romana Koplewicz (née Margitte), born April 26, 1919 in Warsaw, Poland, describes her pre-war life in Poland; her parents and sister; her father’s dye factory; her education at a private Jewish school; her law school education at the University of Joseph Pilsudski in Warsaw; the antisemitism she experienced in law school; meeting her husband in 1936; her inability to complete law school due to anti-Jewish legislation; the beginning of the war and ghettoization in Warsaw; working in her father’s factory; her father’s arrest and return in the spring of 1940; the liquidation of the ghetto; her work sewing German uniforms; her escape with her family from numerous selections; the false papers she and her sister acquired in 1943; her work in the ghetto in a manufacturing factory; working as a housekeeper to survive; her time in Otwock Poland working as a chambermaid in summer 1944 at a convent; her escape to Grodzisko Mazovieckie, Poland because the Gestapo were looking for her; her time working for a German in Warsaw; the Warsaw ghetto uprising; the ghetto’s evacuation and her transfer to Piastów, Poland; her survival and return to Warsaw; her reunion with her husband and their marriage; leaving Warsaw for Germany with her husband; her time in Germany with her husband waiting for their visa to the United States; her immigration to the United States in May 1949; her master’s degree in social work; and her two children and her life in the U.S.

    Oral history interview with Joseph Koplewicz

    Oral History

    Joseph Koplewicz, born December 7, 1915 in Kielce, Poland, describes his pre-war life in Kielce; his parents and siblings; his father’s occupation as a businessman; his education in Kielce and law school education in Warsaw; his family’s religious attitudes; his experiences with antisemitism while attending law school; the beginning of the war; his arrest in Kielce for not wearing a Star of David badge; the ghettoization of Warsaw; performing forced labor in Warsaw; his father’s death due to health complications; his stay with his sister and her husband in a comfortable apartment; his marriage in 1942; being wounded in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; his transfer to Majdanek concentration camp; his transfer to Budzyn labor camp near Krasnik, Poland until February 1944; his transfer to Mielec, Poland where he worked as a draftsman until July 1944; his short time in Wieliczka, Flossenbürg, Litomerice, and Dachau; his transfer to Augsburg, Germany where he worked in airport construction; his time in Kaufering and Nuremburg; a forced march to Landshut, Germany where the SS guards in charge fled; the marchers subsequent scattering; his survival and return to Poland; his reunion with his wife; their decision to leave Poland and immigrate to the United States in 1949; and his post-war life in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Irving Schaffer

    Oral History

    Irving Schaffer, born May 26, 1928 in Chust, Czechoslovakia (present day Khust, Ukraine), discusses growing up in an Orthodox family; his early education; a teacher beating him in front of the class in 1943; experiencing antisemitism before the war; his father’s arrest for receiving milk from a neighbor; the deportation of his father and brother to labor camps; his family’s eviction from their home and deportation to the Chust Ghetto; conditions of the ghetto, such as the Jewish leadership; his assignment as a messenger and pass to leave the ghetto; smuggling in bread from outside the ghetto; people being punished for being Hungarian; being transported by train from the ghetto after three weeks; how partisans blew up the train and told prisoners to jump off and escape; arriving at Auschwitz in the spring of 1944; his memories of Dr. Mengele; being separated from the rest of his family at Auschwitz; being sent to Warsaw, Poland after only three days at Auschwitz; working to clean out the Warsaw Ghetto; prisoners escaping from the Warsaw ghetto; being marched out of the ghetto in August 1944; arriving at Kutno on the German and Polish border; being transported by train to Dachau; living in Camp Seven and working in Mühldorf in an ammunition factory; stealing potatoes and bartering with other prisoners; being transported from Dachau; finding a train transporting sugar that had been bombed and eating the hot sugar; being transported to the Landshut camp; working in Landsberg, Germany; a bombing by American planes; being released by the Germans and then chased down and beaten into a coma; waking up in a German hospital; organizations that assisted in reconnecting families, such as UNRRA and the Joint Distribution Committee; being liberated in Feldmoching, Germany; finding his brother in Chust; how the Russians did not let him leave Chust; escaping across borders into Germany; attending school in Munich, Germany; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with William Klein

    Oral History

    William Klein, born in 1924, discusses growing up in Užhorod, Czechoslovakia (present day Uzhhorod, Ukraine), in a large family; attending Jewish school until the sixth grade, then entering a public high school; the friendliness between Jews and non-Jews in Užhorod; his two older brothers leaving in 1940 for Yugoslavia and Russia with the army; Jews being made to wear the yellow Star of David badge and comply with a curfew beginning in 1942; hearing rumors about Jews being killed in Poland; being forced into the ghetto in January or February 1944; being taken by train to Auschwitz in the spring of 1944; last seeing his parents and sister as they went through the selection process at Auschwitz; being advised by a kapo to volunteer for work outside the camp when he had the opportunity; being taken to what had been the Warsaw Ghetto along with his brother and brother-in-law to demolish buildings and clear debris; finding gold pieces in an abandoned house where he was working and hiding them in a belt; prisoners making up songs and singing as they worked; being forced to march to Dachau as the Russians advanced towards Warsaw; witnessing the death of a rabbi he and his brother had helped on the march; staying in Dachau for a few days; volunteering to work at a construction site; being seriously injured on the construction site and being helped by fellow prisoners, including one who was a doctor; escaping with his brother and brother-in-law from a train and hiding in a farmhouse as the Americans liberated the area; reuniting with his surviving family members in Bratislava and Užhorod; living in Sudetenland and then in a series of displaced persons camps in Germany (Wasserburg, Föhrenwald, and Bremerhaven) and applying to move to the United States; having his application delayed after being accused of being a communist; moving to Chicago in 1951; his pride in his Jewish identity; health problems caused by beatings he received during his time as a prisoner; telling his children about his experiences; and his response to the question of why he does not hate.

    Oral history interview with George Pisik

    Oral History

    George Pisik, born May 25, 1925, describes his experience as a soldier in the U.S. Army’s 15th armored division, 10th infantry battalion; entering Dachau in May 1945 without any prior knowledge of concentration camps; his battalion’s doctor trying to help the prisoners; searching a guard who was subsequently taken by prisoners and killed in the barracks; meeting a 19 year-old female prisoner in Dachau and giving her the mezuzah his grandmother had given him to wear; receiving almost 100 mezuzahs from his family and friends after writing them; giving these mezuzahs to chaplains to distribute and to his fellow soldiers, telling them they were good luck charms; entering Munich and seeing the giant swastika on Munich Stadium, which his commander ordered to be destroyed by tank fire; seeing Germans surrender; conflicts with German civilians; suffering from trench foot and impetigo; returning to the United States expecting to be sent to Japan but staying after the bombing of Hiroshima; after his homecoming, using a swastika flag as a doormat, which drew the attention of the neighborhood and the police when his mother washed it and hung it out to dry; bringing home pistols which his mother took to the army depot to be deactivated; returning to college; his frustration with Holocaust deniers, including a Catholic priest he met in 1950 in Louisiana; the failings of the Catholic Church during the Holocaust; his feelings towards the Germans; his belief that a holocaust could happen again; his level of religious involvement; and the importance of education in preventing another holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Rosicka

    Oral History

    Ruth Rosicka, born August 13, 1919 in Nowice, Czechoslovakia (present day Poland), describes her Polish father who was actively pro-Zion; escaping bombing in Bielsko, Poland; escaping through Krakow, Poland and being found by the Russian army; being deported to a camp in Siberia from which she was amnestied in 1941; being drafted by the Czechoslovakian army and working in the medical brigade, where in 1944 she met her husband; being taken to the Carpathian Mountains, to the war front, where they stayed until February 1945; being released from the Army in May 1945 because of her pregnancy; and living in Prague, Czech Republic after the war.

    Oral history interview with Salomon Cohen

    Oral History

    Salomon Cohen, born July 28, 1937 in Athens, Greece, discusses how his family escaped to the south of Greece in February 1943 with the help of partisans; hiding with his family in the mountains for six months; how the partisans obtained food from monasteries in the mountains for his family; using false names while in hiding; traveling to Izmir, Turkey then Syria; being captured by English troops; how the family was taken to British camps in the Gaza Strip; their escape with the help of a Jewish agency; traveling to Ted Aviv, Israel, where they lived from 1944 to 1952; going into the army as a tank fighter; going to Haifa, Israel after leaving the army; getting married and having children; and his visits to Greece.

    Oral history interview with Suzanne Foldes

    Oral History

    Suzanne Foldes (b. Zsuzsi Morvai) discusses her childhood in Miskolc, Hungary; her Jewish and Christian schooling; pre-war antisemitism; training as a gymnast but being denied entry into the Olympics because she was Jewish; her father’s conscription into Hungarian forced labor; getting married in 1942 to Paul Berkowitz; terminating a pregnancy; the German occupation of Hungary; being confined to a ghetto; being transported to Auschwitz by cattle car; learning of her mother’s death by gassing; moving to Buchenwald; how she was good at stealing coal; liberation; returning to Budapest after the war; reuniting with her father; learning of her husband’s death; marrying a friend from before the war; immigrating to the United States in 1956; and speaking about her wartime experiences beginning in the 1990s.

    Oral history interview with Tibor Vince

    Oral History

    Tibor Vince, born in 1910, describes his childhood near Budapest, Hungary; his medical studies in Italy; his escape to Cuba at the outbreak of World War II; his immigration to the United States; his work as a physician in the United States Army; his experiences at Dachau shortly after liberation; his medical treatment of Allied prisoners of war; and his life in New York, NY after 1945.

    Oral history interview with Elias Piorko

    Oral History

    Elias Piorko, born on May 15, 1919, discusses his childhood in Zambrów, Poland; his life in a kibbutz near Slonim, Poland (now Belarus); his experiences with forced labor in Russia; being in four different camps; his travels through Europe on the way to Italy after World War II; and his life in the United States after 1950.

    Oral history interview with Benjamin Hildesheim

    Oral History

    Benjamin (Beniek) Hildesheim discusses his childhood in Sieradz, Poland; his experiences with antisemitism and Jewish persecution in Sieradz before the Holocaust; his time in the ghettos of Sieradz and Łódź, Poland; his adoption by Chaim Rumkowski; his imprisonment at Auschwitz, Babice/Babitz (a small agricultural camp west of Auschwitz), and Buchenwald concentration camps; his participation in a death march to Theresienstadt, where he remained until liberation; his time in Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), immediately after liberation; his immigration to Palestine in the first Aliyah after World War II in 1945; his participation in the Israel-Arab War of 1948 to 1949; and his life in Brazil and the United States after 1962.

    Oral history interview with Peter Masters

    Oral History

    Peter Masters (né Peter Arany), born February 5, 1922, in Vienna, Austria, describes his prewar life in Vienna; his Viennese mother and Hungarian father; his escape to Britain after the Anschluss in 1938; his family’s internment as “friendly aliens;” his family’s reclassification as enemy aliens in Britain; his experiences volunteering for special hazardous duty in Britain and being assigned the 3rd Group, 10th Commando, an elite paratroop unit mostly consisting of Jewish or political refugees; his identity being anglicized for his protection; his work to petition for the recognition of Austrians who perished fighting the Nazis; his many family members who perished during the war; and his 1997 book, Striking back: A Jewish commando’s war against the Nazis, which he wrote as a counterpoint to the idea the Jews did not fight back during the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Joseph Wolke

    Oral History

    Joseph Wolke (Wolkeovich), born July 14, 1919 in Tomashov (Tomaszów Mazowiecki), Poland, discusses his family background and religious upbringing; his father’s successful farm outside the city; the rise of Hitler and antisemitism; racial laws against Jews; being deported during Rosh Hashanah; arriving in Krakow, Poland on a cattle train; his disbelief that the war would last so long; escaping from the Germans and returning to Tomashov by bus; how the farm provided for the family; increases in the deportation of Jews; living in the Tomashov ghetto; smuggling food into the ghetto; the liquidation of the ghetto on November 1, 1942; the mass burial of Jews in the ghetto for which he was forced to dig graves; being deported to Bergen-Belsen; being transferred on a cattle train to Auschwitz; forced labor digging ditches outside the camp; being relocated to Gross-Rosen camp; the death march from Rosen, which lasted over a week; starvation during the march; liberation by Russian forces; returning home to Poland; meeting his wife and having a child; immigrating to the United States in August 1950; living in Baltimore, MD with his wife’s family; adjusting to American life; creating a business; and learning the fate of his family members in the years following the war.

    Oral history interview with Ionel Ghelman

    Oral History

    Ionel Ghelman, born on March 27, 1929 in Bucharest, Romania, discusses his mother’s death in 1938 and being raised by his maternal aunt; experiencing antisemitism; seeing boys in 1936 practicing to be in the Iron Guard in the future; the German occupation in 1940; the events in January 1941, including pogroms, stores being burned, and Jews being killed; ration cards and how Jews’ ration cards were half of Rumanians’ cards; the Allied bombardments of Bucharest from late 1943 to early 1944; seeing Russian tanks and troops in August 1944; leaving school in 1946 to work in a locomotive factory; rejecting the Communist Youth Party and feeling a connection to Zionist Hashomer Hatzair; going to Bukovina to prepare for kibbutz in Israel; the banning of Zionist organizations in 1949; being a draftsman for oil pipeline company from 1948 to 1950; marrying a Romanian woman in 1956; his children; being expelled from the Communist Party because parents went to Israel; getting visas for Hungary, France, and Germany in 1976; going to New York in April 21, 1977 with the help of HIAS; and settling in Washington and working for Bechtel.

    Oral history interview with Irimia Solomon

    Oral History

    Irimia Solomon, born on November 3, 1924 in Dorohoi, Romania, describes his parents, who were divorced; how he and his mother lived with his grandparents in Falticeni, Romania; his granfather’s farm; the Jewish community in the town and his family not being particularly religious; Jews in Moldovan cities; his education; playing soccer with non-Jewish children; hearing about antisemitism; wanting to go to Palestine; going to school in Bucharest, Romania to learn a trade; his relationship with his father; an uprising in Romania in September 1940; the Iron Guard (Garda de Fier); returning to Falticeni in December 1941; going to Dorohoi; his father being taken away in June 1942; being taken to forced work, unloading rail cards and sweeping; being deported with his mother to Transnistria and conditions during the journey there; having to trade in their Romanian money for Russian rubles; arriving in Sharhorod, Ukraine; being housed in a synagogue for several weeks; staying in a room in a house of a Christian family with other Jews; being in a ghetto, where there was religious life but no cultural life; building roads and sleeping overnight in rail cars outfitted with bunk bed; typhus in Sharhorod and helping to bury the dead; his mother not working and staying indoors; being helped by a cousin’s Christian husband; being taken back to Dorohoi in December 1943; moving from house to house until they could contact relatives; not feeling relief or happiness; his mother being treated as a war widow and being allowed to sell certain items, such as stamps, alcohol, and tobacco; returning to school and going to the polytechnic in 1945; waiting from 1958 to 1972 to get a passport; going to Israel, where his wife did not like the heat; going to Canada, where they settled in Toronto; working as an engineer; and moving to Montreal.

    Oral history interview with Lotte Salus

    Oral History

    Lotte Salus (b. Charlotte Helena Cohen) discusses her childhood living near the Dutch border in Germany; working for a Jewish family; being arrested and pressed into labor after Kristallnacht; being sent to Amsterdam, Netherlands by her father; living with other Jewish teenagers in The Hague, Netherlands; learning her family had been deported to Westerbork; moving to Amsterdam in May 1940; receiving orders to register with the police; being deported to Westerbork; reuniting with her family; daily life in Westerbork; volunteering to go to Theresienstadt with her parents in 1944; her experiences in the camps Auschwitz, Stutthof, and Praust; being taken on a death march in March 1945; liberation by the Russians; sexual violence perpetrated by the Russians; returning to Germany; immigrating to the United States in 1949; and marrying and starting a family.

    Oral history interview with Hans Hirsch

    Oral History

    Hans George Hirsch discusses his early life in Stuttgart, Germany; his father’s role as executive director of the German Jewish Community; graduating gymnasium in 1934; prewar antisemitism; the difficulties he experienced attending university and holding a job in Nazi Germany; visiting Palestine in 1937; receiving a visa to leave for the United States in 1937; working on farms in the U.S.; trying to get his parents out of Europe; teaching German prisoners of war farm management from 1943 to 1946; his career trajectory in food administration and policy; and his retirement from foreign agricultural service.

    Oral history interview with Milton Shurr

    Oral History

    Milton Shurr, born January 28, 1911 in the United States, describes his work with the Jewish Welfare Fund in Oklahoma City, OK in the early 1940s; his draft into the military and entering Officer’s Candidate School; being shipped overseas to England, where he worked in preparation for D-Day in June 1944; his recruitment by the Civil Affairs Unit of the Military Government to gather and identify medical supplies left behind on Omaha Beach, France; helping to provide food for the 15,000 survivors of Buchenwald and working with the Red Cross and Joint Distribution Committee; traveling to Bavaria, Germany to work has a health welfare officer; working to reopen schools, hospitals, banks, and other institutions in Germany; maintaining correspondence with his wife in America during the war; returning to the United States after the war and moving to Chicago as an assistant in health planning; and sharing what he had witnessed in Buchenwald after years of being unable to speak about it.

    Oral history interview with Ludwig Jacob

    Oral History

    Ludwig Jacob discusses his early life in Schmalkalden, Germany; being arrested with his parents on Kristallnacht; being imprisoned in Buchenwald for a month; leaving on a Kindertransport to Holland; living in a children’s home; the German invasion; moving to his brother’s home in Amsterdam; the arrest of his brother, who subsequently was imprisoned and died in Mauthausen; receiving a deportation notice; choosing to live under a false identity; moving to Paris, France and working with the underground; sabotaging the German defense organization where he worked; being denounced and arrested; spending time in Fresnes prison before being deported to Drancy; jumping off the train on the way to Buchenwald; rejoining the resistance; working for Americans in Paris; immigrating to the United States in 1947; and his marriage and life in the US.

    Oral history interview with Barbara Artman

    Oral History

    Barbara Feuerstein Artman, born September 12, 1923 in Kosice, Czechoslovakia (now Slovakia), discusses her parents Elizabeth and Henry Feuerstein and two younger brothers; her 14 aunts and uncles and 27 first cousins, who all perished in the Holocaust; her family’s move to Mukacheve, Czechoslovakia (now Ukraine), which in March 1939 was occupied by Hungry; the Nazi invasion of Hungary in 1944; being forced to live in a ghetto; conditions in the ghetto; her deportation with her family to Auschwitz; conditions in Auschwitz; the treatment of camp guards; being sent to a labor camp near Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland) with her mother; their liberation by the Russians while on a march; walking, at the end of the war, to Krakow; reuniting with one brother; attending medical school but changing her major to chemistry; contacting uncles in United States who arranged for visas and transportation to the US for her, her mother, and her brother; and settling in Forest Hills, NY, where she married another refugee and had one son.

    Oral history interview with Fritz Schonbach

    Oral History

    Fritz (né Frederic) Schonbach, born in 1920, discusses his middle-class childhood in Vienna, Austria; attending private school until Jewish restrictions began in 1938; how life changed with the Nazi annexation of Austria; antisemitism in Austria and the terror campaigns; fleeing to Italy then to England in 1939; his family fleeing to Argentina while he remained in England; his internment in England because of his Austrian background; volunteering for the Australian army; daily life in the army; being discharged in 1946; enrolling in art school after the war; meeting his wife; reuniting with family in Argentina; immigrating to the United States in 1959; and discovering what happened to various family members in the war.

    Oral history interview with Charles Barber

    Oral History

    Charles Barber, born in 1932 in Budapest, Hungary, describes his father, who owned a liquor store; attending a public grade school, where some of the non-Jews wouldn't speak with him; his memories of the first bomb being dropped in Budapest in 1939; his father being drafted into the labor corps of the Hungarian army; his mother’s work as a tailor; being an only child; his father dying after two months in the labor corps; his mother being taken to a camp for eight months in 1943; living with several different people; his mother returning home; his memories of feeling guilty for telling his mother that he was hungry; the Jews being summoned to the courthouse in town and being separated from his mother by the officials; going to live in an orphanage with a Swedish flag out front; the Russian army and their activities in Budapest; his aunt sending him to the Red Cross then a Zionist orphanage in Sagat; returning to Budapest to work in a factory; attending law school but leaving when the revolution began; going to Austria and then the United States with the help of the Red Cross; living with an uncle in the US; becoming an accountant, attending Queensborough Community College and then Bernard Baruch College; working for ABC Transnational Transport; getting married to an Austrian Holocaust survivor; the effects of his Holocaust experience; losing his faith when he lost his parents; visiting Europe; antisemitism in Hungary; wanting to go to Israel; possessing a letter from his mother, which she wrote while she was in Bergen-Belsen, and a picture of his parents (which is in the USHMM Photo Archive); and his other family pictures.

    Oral history interview with Tibor Borsos

    Oral History

    Tibor Borsos, born on March 12, 1927 in Budapest, Hungary, describes his highly intellectual Catholic family; his family moving to Debrecen in 1936; having many Jewish friends; how he “looked Jewish” and was sometimes made fun of; his family’s possession of an American flag, National Geographic magazines, and a censored version of Time magazine; his family burning the American flag March 21, 1944 to be safe; his family storing carpets, silver, and jewelry for Jewish friends and hiding them in the university library; his mother being denounced, arrested, and released; his family leaving Debrecen in May 1944; witnessing Jews being rounded up; going to Budapest and living next door to a Swedish protected house; the closing of schools in the fall of 1944; his family going in December 1944 to Halle an der Saale, Germany, where his father taught in a medical school; being drafted into the Hungarian Army in March 1945 and riding on a train for two months to avoid finding his unit; finding his brother on May 8, 1945 in Mitterald; being rounded up by Patton’s troops and sent to Ludwigshafen, Germany; being sent to a POW camp in Heilbronn; going to Gottingen in the British Occupation Zone; sailing to the United States in December 1949 on the USS Harry Taylor; earning a Ph.D. in chemistry at Johns Hopkins; researching cancer at NIH; marrying a survivor of Bergen-Belsen; and his feelings about not being officially Jewish.

    Oral history interview with Robert Kertesz

    Oral History

    Robert Kertesz, born in 1933, discusses his childhood in Budapest, Hungary; antisemitism in Budapest; his family; his religious upbringing; being stuck in Hungary due to travel restrictions; his father being conscripted into the Hungarian Army; the Hungarian Nazis and Arrow Cross Party members in his neighborhood; the increasing antisemitism and abuse; how the ghetto grew in 1943; finding safe houses for children; escaping from the ghetto after his parent’s deportation; hiding in his Christian aunt’s home; returning to Budapest to escape violence; returning to the ghetto; living conditions in the ghetto; liberation by the Soviets; looting by the Soviet Army in the city; working as a guide and interpreter for Russians; his parents’ return; living in a displaced persons camp; immigrating to the United States in 1948; and his life in the U.S.

    Oral history interview with Fred Kahn

    Oral History

    Fred Kahn, born December 19, 1932 in Wiesbaden, Germany, describes being raised until he was six years old by an aunt (Rosa Nassauer) in Wehen, Germany; his older brother, Walter; his Christian friend, Walter Kaltwasser, who protected him from young Nazis; being raised religious by his aunt and uncle; his grandfather dying in 1938; being sent after the Munich Agreement to Aachen, Germany, where he crossed the border and joined his parents and brother in Verviers, Belgium; his father’s successful career as playing bridge; his aunt and uncle being sent to Łódź, Poland; starting school in Belgium; his parents and life in Verviers; going to Liege and Brussels in May 1940 with his family; returning to Verviers; Jews having to register; the small right-wing party, Rexiste, which collaborated with the Nazis; his father being interrogated; getting false identities with the last name Jejeune; being taught Catholic prayers; getting scarlet fever in the spring of 1942; leaving his school after getting in a fight; his principal helping him; going into hiding and the various ways he entertained himself; moving from village to village in 1943; getting a job in 1944, carrying milk; being liberated in September 1944 by the American Army; life when he was in hiding; his mother’s accused of being a German spy and arrested; the Battle of the Bulge; events he heard about involving the underground; factors that helped him survive; developing a sense of humor; and considering Verviers his hometown.

    Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

    Oral History

    Susan Warsinger (née Hilsinrath), born in 1929, discusses her family and childhood in Bad Kreuznach, Germany; her memories of Kristallnacht; escaping to Paris, France; being homeless; fleeing to Versailles when the Germans invaded; going to Château des Morelles, a home for homeless children; her schooling; getting tickets to the United States from the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society; immigrating to the U.S. in 1941; her life in the U.S.; her feelings about returning home to Europe; and her life since the war.

    Oral history interview with Arnold Weiss

    Oral History

    Hans Arnold Wangesheim, born in Nuremberg, Germany on July 25, 1924, describes his parents divorcing in 1930; his mother placing him in a very strict Jewish orphanage in Furth; his encounters with Hitler youth; getting passage on a Kindertransport with help of Quakers in 1938; going to Chicago, IL then Milwaukee, WI; running away from a Jewish orphanage and being placed with a family in Janesville, WI; attending a watchmaker’s college; enlisting in 1942 in the Army Air Corps and being a B-17 tail gunner; his training plane crashing in Utah in 1943 and being severely injured; going to OSS (Office of Strategic Services) in Washington in 1944; going in late 1944 to Paris, France then Germany; crossing the Rhine with the 4th Division behind German lines picking up mail from agents; seeing Nuremberg bombed; going back to Furth; going in April 1945 to Dachau to get important political prisoners, including the former French Prime Minister Leon Blum; locating the prisoners in Innsbruck, Austria; his counterintelligence work for de-Nazification and working with Hugh Trevor-Roper to hunt down Wilhelm Zander; being assigned to trace enemy assets including Nazi treasures and Reichsbank gold; his work interrogating Germans, doing anti-Soviet intelligence, and being sent to Czechoslovakia as a contact for Hungarian agents; returning to the US, attending school, and working for the US Treasury; and working for a law firm.

    Oral history interview with Sia Hertsberg

    Oral History

    Sia Hertsberg (née Izrailewitsch), born June 8, 1927 in Riga, Latvia, describes her early family life and schooling; the Jewish community and the state of antisemitism in pre-war Riga; the 1940 Russian invasion; her family’s persecution at the hands of the Russian communists; the 1941 Nazi occupation and implementation of Nazi race laws; the burning of Riga’s synagogues; the help her family received from non-Jewish friends; the establishment and the later liquidation of the Riga ghetto; how a Latvian soldier attempted to rape her; avoiding the Rumbula massacre; working as a seamstress in a Reichskommissariat workshop; her family’s transport to the Kaiserwald concentration camp; how her father saved her sister several times by hiding her amidst the trash or in a pot of soup when the Nazis were looking for young children; the Nazis’ theft of her childhood; the normalcy of discussing death; her family’s transport via ship and cattle car to Stutthof; the typhus epidemic and her work carrying the dead to the crematorium; her mother’s death; her and her sister’s escape from a death march; seeking shelter and being turned away by Polish peasants; liberation by Russian soldiers on March 23, 1945; hospitalization and her sister’s death; her deep depression at losing her family; her hospitalization in Kolomna, Russia; her return to Riga and reunion with her father; falling in love with her future husband; their attempts to illegally immigrate to the United States and her father’s subsequent imprisonment by the Russians; the birth of her two sons; finishing her schooling; her husband’s death; her move to Chicago, Illinois and her post-war life in the United States; and her father’s death on the same day as her sister, thirty years later.

    Oral history interview with Chava Frajhof

    Oral History

    Chava Frajhof (née Geister), born September 20, 1923 in Belzyce, Poland, discusses her family; the German invasion of Poland in 1939; hiding from the Germans; paying the Judenrat to be assigned work in Będzin, Poland; working as a seamstress; being sent to Kraśnik, Poland in 1943; being liberated by the Soviets; fleeing to Lublin, Poland; having a family; going to Frankfurt, Germany then Berlin, Germany; and immigrating to Brazil in 1953 to join her family.

    Oral history interview with Israel Frajhof

    Oral History

    Israel Frajhof, born March 3, 1920 in Krasnik (near Lublin), Poland, describes experiencing violent antisemitism in 1933; the establishment of a ghetto in the fall of 1942; the typhus epidemic and conditions in the ghetto; working outside the ghetto; the deportation of old men, women and children deported to Majdanek and Treblinka in December 1942; trying to become a policeman but being declined permission; doing carpentry work for Germans making furniture; appels, beatings, and sleeping in the synagogue; meeting his future wife Chava Geister, who was in Krasnik camp; the Russians’ arrival in Lublin on July 22,1944; the death march to Germany and escaping into the forest for 10 days; meeting up with Chava and going to Krasnik; going to Lublin; getting married in January 1946; going to Berlin , Germany and being helped by the UNRRA; going to Frankfurt, Germany; going to Brazil in 1953; visiting Majdanek in 1986; and living for his wife and children.

    Oral history interview with Edward Novakoff

    Oral History

    Edward Novakoff, born in 1926 in Boston, Massachusetts, discusses his Ukrainian and Lithuanian immigrant parents; enlisting in the U.S. Army in December 1943; being shipped to Marseilles, France with the 90th Infantry Division; seeing his company wiped out in November 1944; fighting in southern Germany in January 1945; arriving at Flossenbürg in May 1945 and seeing the conditions and the survivors; his transfer to the 26th Regiment, 1st Infantry in August 1945; guarding prisoners for the Nuremburg Trials; having contact with Nuremburg prisoners; returning to the U.S. in December 1945; his life after the war; and helping to create the largest Jewish cemetery in the Boston area.

    Oral history interview with Celia Feldschuh

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Nicole Yancey

    Oral History

    Nicole Yancey (née Guggenheim), born July 26, 1941 in Saint-Amand-Mont-Rond, France, describes having one sister, Nanette, born November 1938; being separated from her family when she was two years old and sent to a farm to live in a safe and secure environment; still today calling the farmer and his wife her real grandparents; members of the French Resistance coming in for meals because the farm was close to the demarcation line and there was lots of Resistance activity; her daily routine of working, hiding, and eating; how her relationships were all very harmonious; being moved back to Orléans, France when she was five years old and starting school; the severe personality changes of her parents because of their experiences during the Holocaust; the torment her father experienced because he was not able to save his brothers from being murdered; being sponsored by a French/American agency to attend William and Mary College, where she met her husband; remaining in the Tidewater, VA area; converting to Catholicism because her husband is Catholic as are her children; her position now as Consul for the French Embassy in Norfolk, VA; and her assertion that tragedies like the Holocaust will continue as long as people do not learn to accept each other and their differences.

    Oral history interview with Jaffa Munk

    Oral History

    Jaffa Munk (née Noemi Donath), born April 10, 1931 IN Ónod, Hungary, describes her father Philippe, who was a Rabbi, and her mother Olga Shick Donath; having one brother, Joseph, and one sister, Esther Judith; living a very normal life with a family that was religious yet open-minded and encouraged academics; the many changes that began in 1942 and 1943; being moved in May 1944 to the ghetto, where her father was put in charge; being sent to Auschwitz; the brutal arrival and her father’s last words to her: “Wherever you go, continue to believe in God;” being marched to Birkenau, which was the very last time she saw her mother; being selected by Mengele in September 1944 to go to Bergen-Belsen and the grim living situation there; the forced evacuation in January 1945 and a subsequent six week death march; escaping to a forest and being liberated May 8, 1945 by Russian soldiers; eventually returning to Budapest, Hungary, where she lived at an Orthodox refugee orphanage facility, which was started by Esther Eckstein with education as the primary goal; going with a Zionist group with 1800 refugees to Palestine on a boat leaving from Bucharest, Romania and the refusal of the British to allow them entry, but finally being allowed to land at Haifa, Palestine; the break-out of war in 1947 and the desperate living conditions during the war; being taken to Tel Aviv, Israel, where there was less danger and where she attended teacher’s seminary; meeting her husband, who was in the Army; the birth of her first son, Gabriel, which was the highlight of her life because it meant continuation of her family; her teaching positions, starting with 1st grade, where students came from 30 different countries; and how her personal strengths are her sense of hope and having a positive outlook.

    Oral history interview with Frances Hirshfeld

    Oral History

    Frances Hirshfeld (née Frieda Miriam Rosenbloom), born in 1918, discusses her family and childhood in Opatów, Poland; moving to Zawiercie, Poland and its local Jewish population; the beginning of the war; her religious life; antisemitism; Kristallnacht; going into hiding in Ukraine and returning to Poland; the Judenrat; adjusting to anti-Jewish laws; moving into the ghetto; living conditions in the ghetto; being deported to Auschwitz in 1943; living conditions in Auschwitz; being moved to Birkenau; contracting typhoid fever and scabies; lack of medical care; bombings near the camp; returning to Auschwitz; hearing about the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; working in a munitions factory; being on a death march to Ravensbrück; escaping into a forest; liberation by the Soviets; immigrating to the United States in October 1946; her husband immigrating to the U.S. in 1949; visiting Poland; her feelings about Holocaust deniers; and her life after the war.

    Oral history interview with Moris Gluckman

    Oral History

    Moris Glukman, born in Suceava, Romania in 1924, discusses his childhood; the rise in antisemitism; deportation announcements; his arrival in Bessarabia (in Moldova and Ukraine) with his family and how the peasants took the belongings of the Romanian Jews; travel to Moravia, Czech Republic; living at the mercy of the Romanian Gendarmerie; the spread of typhus and diphtheria during the winter of 1941-1942; how the Ukranian police guarded the village in Moravia; the German entrance into Moravia; building bridges and excavating coal from open mines; his knowledge about events in Bessarabia and Russian positions and the approaching front; working in a Kolkhoz; being liberated by the Russians; his schooling in Bucharest, Romania; and immigration to the United States in 1983.

    Oral history interview with Margie Rosenthal

    Oral History

    Margie Rosenthal (née Margit Mary Miedzwinski), born July 19, 1927 in Gleiwitz, Germany (Gliwice, Poland), describes her prewar childhood; her family’s immigration to the Philippines after the Nazi invasion so that her father could continue in the lumber business; her pleasant life in the Philippines until the Japanese bombing in December 1941 and subsequent invasion; severe changes in their lives in Pasay City as Americans began bombing nearby Manila; the delay in her family’s move to the United States in 1948 as a result of immigration quotas; her life in San Francisco; and her marriage to her husband, Ernie.

    Oral history interview with Emma Mogilensky

    Oral History

    Emma Mogilensky (née Hubert), born May 22, 1923 in Kronheim, Bavaria, describes living in the house that had been built by her great-grandfather; having one brother and one sister; living in a friendly and peaceful community until Kristallnacht on November 9, 1938 when antisemitism became so violent that she was sent to Nuremberg, Germany; enrolling in a very strict, all Jewish high school; moving to Augsberg, Germany after her father was released from Dachau; the children’s transport, going to Munich, Germany and being transferred to a boat; finally arriving in London, England, where she and the other children were chosen for English homes such that not one of them would become a public charge; being sent to live with a couple, both physicians, who were extremely helpful; attending school again where English Literature became her best subject; being a Fire Watcher at St. Paul’s Cathedral and joining the British Army when she was 17; antisemitism in the Army; being a cook for 2,000 men; receiving her GED; subsequently attending college on the GI Bill; a trip to Israel with her children after her husband’s death; finding that the cemetery where her grandparents were buried was not desecrated and finding their graves; visiting her foster parents in England every year; and her serious commitment to speaking about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Isaiah Henig

    Oral History

    Isaiah Henig (né Yeshiah Henig), born in 1915, discusses his childhood in Szydlowiec, Poland; his family and the Jewish community; his religious upbringing; the absence of antisemitism before the war; changing anti-Jewish attitudes after the German occupation; the outbreak of the war and changes in daily life; being conscripted for forced labor; the creation of the ghetto; living conditions in the ghetto; working as a laborer in Starachowice, Poland; diseases in the camp; working to build replacement parts for machines; not believing reports about Jewish deaths; being deported to Birkenau in the summer of 1944; working in a factory; being moved to other concentration camps, including Mauthausen and Hannover; Allied bombing of the area; being deported to Bergen-Belsen; living conditions in the camp; his job building cannons; liberation by the British; moving to a displaced persons camp; immigrating to the United States in 1951; his life after the war; and his feelings about what happened.

    Oral history interview with Ida Henig

    Oral History

    Ida Henig (née Markowicz), born in 1924, discusses her family and childhood in Lódź, Poland; Łódź’s Jewish community and economy; not experiencing antisemitism before the war; changing anti-Jewish attitudes when the Germans invaded; fleeing to Częstochowa, Poland; working in the ghetto; not believing stories of mass murder; the Jewish police; liberation by the Soviets in January 1945; going to Germany; coming to the United States in the 1950s; the fates of her family members; and her feelings about the Holocaust and war.

    Oral history interview with Marcel Drimer

    Oral History

    Marcel Drimer (b. Marceli Drimmer), born in 1934, discusses his childhood in Drohobych, Poland (present day Ukraine); his family; his religious upbringing; life before the war; the Russian occupation; the German invasion in 1941; the looting of Jewish property; the deportations in 1942; moving into the ghetto; the fates of his family members; Ukrainian and German police; the Judenrat; hiding in an attic for a week; escape plans being postponed due to the death of his father; how his female relatives were saved by a woman who was recognized as a righteous gentile; their living conditions while in hiding; liberation by the Soviets; adjusting to life after the war; his education; difficult living conditions in Poland; post-war anti-Semitism; immigrating to the United States in 1961; his family going to Israel; and his feelings about the war, Poland, and anti-Semitism.

    Oral history interview with Michael Silberstein

    Oral History

    Michael Silberstein (né Mieczyslaw Silberstein), born in 1930 in Grudziadz, Poland, discusses his family; life before the war; the arrival of the German Army when he was nine years old; moving to Łódź, Poland; the establishment of the Łódź ghetto; being an errand boy and getting arrested in 1942; escaping arrest; living conditions in the ghetto; being deported to Birkenau in the summer of 1944; being sent on a death march in January 1945; arriving in Mauthausen; conditions and life in Mauthausen; liberation by the Americans; reuniting with his family; meeting family in England; immigrating to the United States in1952; being drafted into the U.S. Army; and his life after the war.

    Oral history interview with Joan Schwab

    Oral History

    Joan Schwab (née Nussbaum), born on March 24, 1926, describes living in the Tiergarten area of Berlin, Germany; her memories of Kristallnacht and how two men came for her father; being placed on a Children’s Transport to England on May 21, 1939; staying with Norman and Elsie Denham and going to secondary school and Hebrew school; her brother joining her in August 1939; evacuating in September to Chichester; conditions in the home, where she shared a bed with four girls and showered every two weeks; graduating from high school in 1944 and going back to Denhams in London; sleeping in an air raid shelter when V2 rockets attacked; going after the war to the Joint Distribution Committee in Munich, Germany and finding out that her parents perished in Auschwitz and her grandfather died in Theresienstadt; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with Erwin Deutscher

    Oral History

    Erwin Deutscher, born on January 28, 1923 in Vienna, Austria, describes being raised with thorough religious training; being in the Zionist Youth group, HaShomer HaDati; how his maternal grandfather had gone to the United States in 1898 to Oklahoma City, OK; his Bar Mitzvah in 1936; hearing about Hitler’s arrival on March 11, 1938; his father’s dairy business closing; his mother being arrested; getting notice that his youth group was going to go to Palestine and meeting Eichmann at the emigration office with his father; conditions getting worse in Vienna; traveling with 25 others by train to Trieste and by boat to Haifa and arriving October 24, 1938; going to Mikveh Israel agricultural school for two years then to Bnai Akiva yeshiva for another two years; working for Haganah and meeting his wife; fighting in the Israeli War of Independence; his father being taken to Dachau after Kristallnacht and then to Buchenwald from June 1939 to January 1940; his parents immigrating to the United States; his life after the war working for a life insurance company; and getting a Ph. D. in Hebrew letters at Hebrew Union College.

    Oral history interview with George Pick

    Oral History

    George Pick, born in Budapest, Hungary on March 28, 1934, describes his very large extended family; his father losing his job in May 1939 and being sent on labor brigade in September 1940 for three months; seeing German tanks in the streets on March 9, 1944 and the subsequent anti-Jewish laws after including wearing the yellow star and not being allowed to attend school after April; his father having to leave again; being ordered to move to special Jewish houses in the summer of 1944; the air raids in Budapest and the massive bombings on July 2, 1944; his father’s return; he and his mother joining his father in hiding in a uniform factory building in November 1944; the factory being raided December 2, 1944 and bribing their way out; being taken to a Red Cross building and running away; going to the ghetto on December 14, 1944 and his father being in the ghetto police; the siege of Budapest; Wallenberg saving Jews from a massacre in January 1945; liberation; starting school; his Bar Mitzvah in 1947; attending university; going to Austria and then the United States, where his uncle lived; working for the Navy as mechanical engineer and retiring in 1996; his three marriages and not having children; and his commitment to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Hedi Pope

    Oral History

    Hedi Pope (née Politzer), born March 18, 1920 in Vienna, Austria, describes her prosperous family, which was neither religious nor political; wanting to be a dancer as a child; the increase in anti-Semitism in Vienna; her memories, day-by-day, of Hitler’s invasion of Austria in March 1938; rising fears to speak out about Hitler’s actions; her memories of Kristallnacht; her father being sent to Dachau; the difficulty of getting all the documents to go to the United States; immigrating to the U.S. in January 1939; living in Newark, NJ; joining the Refugee Artist’s Group as a dancer; going to Miami University in Ohio and graduating in 1942; having two children; maintaining a dance studio in Alexandria, VA until 1980; and working with the volunteer corps at USHMM.

    Oral history interview with Bella Simon Pasternak

    Oral History

    Bella Simon Pasternak, born in 1928, discusses her liberation from Auschwitz by Russians; walking home to Hungary during the winter; being hospitalized with frostbite and starvation; living in a displaced persons camp in Innsbruck, Austria; immigrating to the United States in 1946; her first impressions of the U.S.; Americans’ disbelief at her experiences; meeting her husband, who was also a survivor; her religious views becoming more orthodox; desiring to immigrate to Israel; coping with the Holocaust many years after it occurred and still experiencing nightmares; and how important her grandchildren are to her.

    Oral history interview with Marion Friedman

    Oral History

    Marion Friedman (b. Traute Marion Julia Georgia Sulimas), born in 1922, discusses her childhood in Hamburg, Germany; being raised with her Christian mother and Jewish father; her parents’ upbringings; celebrating both Christian and Jewish holidays; her brothers’ immigrations to China and the United States; the Aryanization of her father’s bank; her mother’s resourcefulness; receiving a visa along with her mother to go to the U.S.; being sent to the U.S. on her own because her mother decided to stay with her father; learning of her parents’ arrest and deaths; adjusting to life in the U.S.; meeting her husband; returning to Germany long after the war; meeting her German family; and dealing with her losses on a daily basis.

    Oral history interview with Elizabeth Strassburger

    Oral History

    Elizabeth Strassburger, born in 1938, discusses her childhood in a small town near Zakopane, Poland; her father’s arrest and imprisonment in Siberia; being forced into the Tarnow ghetto with her mother and grandmother; watching her grandmother being taken by the Germans; hiding under an assumed Christian identity; being drugged and hidden in a basement during dangerous times; the family who hid her and her mother; believing she was a Catholic; her Catholic schooling; liberation by the Russians; learning she was Jewish after the war; being smuggled out of Poland with her mother; living at a Jewish orphanage with her mother in Germany; learning her father was alive; moving to Italy to be with her father; immigrating to England with her family; immigrating to the United States; adjusting to life as a teenager in the U.S.; her marriage; studying social work in college; her volunteer work; and her family.

    Oral history interview with Jadwiga Dziekonski

    Oral History

    Jadwiga Dziekonski, born in 1919, discusses her family’s emigration from Kiev, Ukraine to Warsaw, Poland in 1921 because of the revolution; her Catholic upbringing; attending public school; following the political situation in Germany; meeting her husband; the German invasion and occupation; her father’s exile in London, England as a member of the Bank of Poland; moving to Warsaw with her husband; her husband’s role in the Home Army; her daughter’s birth in 1943; sheltering two Jewish women in her mother’s apartment; the Polish underground’s participation in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; the Warsaw Uprising; her husband’s arrest and imprisonment in Bergen-Belsen and Gross-Rosen; liberation; readjusting to life after the war; escaping to London through Sweden in 1947; leaving her mother behind; reuniting with her father; immigrating to Detroit in 1951; visiting Poland in 1988 to see her husband’s family; her feelings about being Polish; how she feels about Jewish people and German people; and her two visits to Israel.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Harvey

    Oral History

    Ruth Harvey, born in 1928, describes growing up with mixed Jewish and Christian heritage; her childhood in Berlin, Germany; being expelled from public school in 1938; attending a private Jewish school; witnessing the burning of Berlin’s temple during Kristallnacht; hearing Hitler’s speeches over loudspeakers; leaving Germany in 1939 with her mother to meet her father in Cuba; immigrating to New York in 1940 with her parents; growing up in New York City; moving to Washington, DC for a job with the State Department; getting married and having children; having a sense of confusion about her religious identity; why she chose not to visit any concentration camps; and volunteering at the USHMM.

    Oral history interview with Thomas B. Gardiner

    Oral History

    Thomas Brown Gardiner, born on March 26, 1920 in St. Louis County, Missouri, describes being raised by his widowed mother; life during the Depression; working for a house painter as a teen in St. Louis; getting married in 1940; working for a manufacturer that made small parts for the M1 rifle; being drafted in 1944; training at Camp Robinson in Arkansas; being sent to England in the fall of 1944; going to France; being assigned to the 45th Infantry Division; seeing action in the Vosges Mountains and Alsace-Lorraine; participating in the capture of Schaffenburg; going through Nuremberg and Munich; liberating Dachau as a member of L Company in the 157th Infantry Regiment; guarding the camp while waiting for the military police to arrive; billeting in apartment buildings outside of the camp, where the Nazi officers had lived; typhus in the camp and the high death rate of the survivors; speaking with the survivors and being shown the camp by them; going to Munich then Augsburg for a month; being sent to Le Havre, France; returning to the US; working in military camps in Texas until his release; the effect seeing Dachau had on him; and how he feels stronger in his Christian faith.

    Oral history interview with Roberta Jones

    Oral History

    Roberta Jones, born October 15, 1921 in St. Louis, Missouri, discusses growing up during the Great Depression; enlisting as a nurse in the United States Army; being commissioned as a second lieutenant with the 3rd Army and assigned to the 121st Semi-Mobile Evacuation Hospital; traveling by ship to England and helping in a hospital there; traveling to Luxembourg and then into Germany under dangerous conditions; going to Buchenwald; seeing a crematorium, stacked bodies, and starved prisoners still in uniforms; being offered bread by the prisoners; seeing a lampshade made of human skin in the office of a Nazi official; visiting a smaller liberated concentration camp and watching as American soldiers distributed clothing to naked prisoners; traveling with her hospital to a concentration camp near Linz, Austria (possibly Mauthausen); female nurses being kept outside of the camp fence as men worked inside the camp; meeting newly-liberated English prisoners of war who had been captured at the Battle of Dunkirk; returning to the United States and working at McCormack General Hospital in Pasadena, California; the difficulties of severely disfigured patients integrating into the community in Pasadena; marrying her husband; working at Camp Swift in Texas and Camp Polk in Louisiana, and, during the Korean War, in a military hospital in Michigan; encountering Holocaust deniers; and her insistence that her children know everything about her experience so that they can continue to spread the truth about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Christine Cohen

    Oral History

    Christine Cohen, born April 27, 1940 in the Warsaw ghetto, describes living in the ghetto until 1942 when they escaped; using forged papers showing that they were Christian; having one brother, born in 1948; being sent alone to live with a farm family; being helped and protected by an aristocratic woman, who had befriended an old German officer while she worked for the underground resistance; living with a series of families and caretakers; living in Walbrzych, Poland; not knowing she was Jewish until she was 10 years old and not admitting to it until she moved to Israel (seven years later) in 1957; visiting Germany and Poland after the war and going to Auschwitz, all of which was very difficult; wanting to stay in Israel but because of her parents, moving to the United States; the bitterness she still feels about having her entire extended family taken from her; the recurring nightmares and physical ailments that are all tension-related; and her current life in San Antonio, TX, where there are only a few survivors of her mother’s generation.

    Oral history interview with Hugh Jenkins

    Oral History

    Hugh Jenkins, born December 29, 1914 in Lester, England, describes being the youngest of eight siblings, whose father was a Welsh minister; working before World War II with Quakers and being a conscientious objector even before the war; moving to London, England in 1944 to take part in training at a Quaker institute; being sent to Antwerp, Belgium after the training to do relief work; going to Belsen, Germany on April 22, 1944, soon after the camp had been discovered and the horrific scene; the various response processes at the camp; setting up a hospital, known as the “new camp,” maintaining a first aid station, and finding food; eventually being sent to Poland to be in charge of another camp; how even now he has a sense of desolation in how war is used to settle problems; working as the overseas secretary for the British Friends Relief Service until 1948, when he went to Philadelphia, PA to work with the American Friends Service Committee; and being sent to Washington, DC to be the director of the Foreign Student Service Center.

    Oral history interview with Rene Edgar Tressler

    Oral History

    Rene Edgar Tressler, born April 16, 1927 in Strakonice, Czech Republic, describes his childhood in Strakonice; his parents and brother; escaping to Prague, Czech Republic to live with his grandparents; his brother’s selection to be on the Board of Elders at Theresienstadt; how Theresienstadt was used as a showcase for the Red Cross; his deportation to Auschwitz; his camp number; being moved to Birkenau; his movement to Blechhammer camp; his experiences on a death march in February 1945; his arrival at Buchenwald; reuniting with his parents and brother after the liberation; escaping Czechoslovakia in 1956; immigrating to the United States; and authoring several books.

    Oral history interview with Stefan Wohl

    Oral History

    Stefan Wohl, born February 4, 1934 in Vienna, Austria, discusses the Anschluss in 1938; leaving Vienna through Switzerland to Kraków, Poland; traveling with 14 family members in September 1939 to Jaroslav, Zloczow, and Kolomyja; being captured with his father in November 1939 while trying to cross the border; being released and going to Zloczow; being on a transport for six weeks with his mother, sister, and other relatives in July 1940; arriving in the Yakutsk, Siberia labor camp settlement; leaving in May 1941 by train through Moscow to Lvov where they were reunited with their father; the German invasion on June 22, 1941; going with his sister to a farm in Jaroslav; going to Budapest, Hungary via Monkacs, Hungary (Mukacheve, Ukraine) in the fall 1942; changing their name to Wolinski and pretending to be Catholic; going to Leanyfalu in 1943 and staying for a year; the family going to Seged (Szeged), Hungary; being captured and jailed; being released and staying with an uncle in Budapest; his father’s illness; being liberated by Russians in January 1945; going back to Poland in the spring 1945; going to Sweden in the summer 1946; sailing to Brazil in October 1946; attending school and a university in the United States; and being a film producer in Brazil.

    Oral history interview with Yehuda Adam

    Oral History

    Yehuda Adam (né George Strn), born on July 3, 1929 in Budapest, Hungary, discusses being raised in a reform Jewish household; being put into forced labor in Budapest; receiving a Schutzpasse and his family working for Raoul Wallenberg; being liberated by the Soviets in January 15, 1945; going to Palestine in 1949; going to the United States in 1962; and living in both Israel and the US.

    Oral history interview with Arlette de Long

    Oral History

    Arlette de Long, born June 15, 1937 in Brocourt, Somme, France; describes her parents’ medical practice; her early love of the church and uncertainly whether her family was Jewish; villagers’ willingness to maintain friendship with the family because her father was the only physician in the village; having no memory of life before the war; the liberation of France; moving to a suburb of Paris, where she attended Protestant churches rather than synagogue; father’s unwillingness to discuss the Holocaust; her own reluctance to discuss the Holocaust until her sixteen year old daughter insisted that she talk about it; moving to the United States; her work as a psychotherapist for underprivileged children; and her feeling that her story is one of hope, compassion, and gratitude.

    Oral history interview with Eva Adam

    Oral History

    Eva Adam, born September 3, 1932 in Budapest, Hungary, describes her Orthodox Jewish family; her family’s awareness of what was happening to European Jews; their reluctance to leave Hungary; her father and brother’s membership in the Jewish Legion; serving as adjunct personnel to the Hungarian Army; changes in their lives in the late 1930s and early 1940s; her family’s unawareness of concentration camps before 1944; the Arrow Cross Party taking over the Hungarian police; deteriorating conditions for Jews; the murder of Jews at the Danube River; conditions in the ghetto; her post-liberation search for family members; finding that only three of her thirty-six family members survived Auschwitz; leaving Budapest in 1949; living in Israel and then the United States in 1961; her plans to return to Israel in the future; her pride in being a Jew and a Hungarian; the value in caring about others; and her strong work ethic as an explanation of why she was able to survive.

    Oral history interview with Herbert Bitter

    Oral History

    Herbert Jerome Bitter, born August 4, 1919 in New York City, discusses his parents who were Romanian immigrants; growing up in a Jewish neighborhood in Manhattan; becoming more religious during his service in the United Sates Army from 1943 to 1945; his experiences at Ohrdruf in 1945 soon after the Germans evacuated the camp; seeing three U.S. generals, Eisenhower, Bradley, and Patton, at the camp on April 5, 1945; the generals’ return visit on April 12, 1945 with photographers; how the freed inmates at Ohrdruf were eager to tell their stories to the American liberators; the effect of witnessing the horrors of the Holocaust had on his Jewish identity; and his reluctance to talk about his experiences during the war, especially to children.

    Oral history interview with Rachel Goldfarb

    Oral History

    Rachel Goldfarb, born December 2, 1930 in Poland (now Dokshytsy, Belarus), discusses her life following her liberation by the Russians and her time living in the forests near Bialystok, Poland with her mother; working and living on Russian trains; traveling to Prussia to find shelter provided by various Jewish organizations and the Red Cross; traveling to Italy’s southern coast; attempting to board a ship to Palestine but being blockaded by British authorities; eventually getting to New York City in November 1947 after two and a half years in Italy; visiting Washington, DC after graduation from high school; taking a job with the District Court; attending George Washington University at night; meeting her husband, also a Holocaust survivor, and marrying in 1952; raising two children, both of whom are architects; finally visiting Israel; her good life in the United States; and her advice about valuing what you have in life.

    Oral history interview with Tania Rozmaryn

    Oral History

    Tania Rozmaryn, born on June 16, 1928 in Vilnius, Poland (present day Lithuania), discusses her family as strong Zionists; the changes that took place after the German occupation; family’s escape towards the eastern Russian border; working in the house of an SS officer and being offered guidance on survival; frightening years in the Kovno ghetto; going into hiding until 1944 when the ghetto was liquidated; her deportation with her mother to Stutthof; her mother’s struggles and strategies, trying to make her look less like a child so that she would be chosen for work; being sent to various work camps until March 1945 when they were liberated by the Russians and taken to Central Poland to a displaced persons camp; being sent to Germany with false documents to a kibbutz in Munich; going to the American Zone and teaching at a school in Bergen-Belsen in 1947; getting married in 1949; immigrating to the United States in 1950; graduating summa cum laude from the Teacher’s Institute and receiving an M.A. from Queens College in 1960; moving to Maryland in 1990 where she received an M.S. in Marriage and Family Counseling; nightmares about her Holocaust experiences; and her feelings about her Jewish faith.

    Oral history interview with Frank Ephraim

    Oral History

    Franz Gunter Ephraim, born February 19, 1931 in the Schöneberg district of Berlin, Germany, describes his family and being raised Jewish but not Orthodox; living an integrated life in the community until 1937 and his participation in the 1936 Olympics events; how Kristallnacht was the impetus for his family immigrating to the Philippines; attending a Hebrew school in Manila before the attack on Pearl Harbor and the Japanese invasion of the Philippines; the politics in Manila; experiencing an open Jewish life; their favorite playing areas, holidays, their several living spaces, and the daily routine in Manila; the attack on Pearl Harbor and his memories of the alarms, airplanes, gas masks, and lack of school for about a year; how after the US declared war there were more air raids and an exodus from the Philippines began; how the US was closed to Jews who still had family in Germany and Europe and his family could not go to the US; the Japanese invasion of the Philippines; the many wartime restrictions, including food shortages, looting, changes in currency, and a new governmental organization; how 1944 was the year when things were really deteriorated and the people were starving; the daily air raids from B24 bombers; the Japanese systematically burning down the city of Manila; how February 1945 brought total chaos and there was no food for several weeks; the liberation of Manila by US forces; leaving the Philippines on November 19, 1946; arriving in San Francisco, CA where relatives were waiting for them, along with HIAF; the closeness of the Manila Jewish community in San Francisco; attending UC Berkeley until the Korean War when he was drafted into the Army and sent to Europe as an interpreter; becoming a US citizen in 1952; his philosophy that the importance of Jews as a nation is far more important than Jews as a religion and that self-reliance is the most important quality to have; graduating from UC Berkeley in 1957; and working for a naval architect specializing in submarines, United Airlines, and the Maritime Administration in Washington, DC.

    Oral history interview with Peter Phillips

    Oral History

    Ernst Pieter Philipps, born December 5, 1931 in Essen, Germany, describes his twin brothers, who were three years younger; moving to Prague, Czech Republic in 1936 because of his father’s position with his company; life in Prague, which was normal until the Germans occupied Prague beginning April 1939; moving to Genoa, Italy and spending six months there; relocating by an Italian steamer to Quito, Ecuador, where living conditions were rather primitive and where at their second address they experienced antisemitism for the first time; spending two years in Ecuador; relocating to New York City, NY, where the instances of antisemitism directed at him were violent and ugly; his parents moving back to Rotterdam by 1950 while he remained behind in the house his parents had bought in Queens; attending City College of New York for five years and in 1955 joining the US Army and being sent to Germany where, among other duties, he worked as a teacher and Boy Scout leader for American and German boys; after leaving the Army, working first for the New York Times, a newspaper in Danbury, CT, and Business Week magazine; going to Washington, DC to work for McGraw Hill for 20 years; his experiences as a volunteer at the USHMM; and how he believes his experiences as a Jew have affected his outlook.

    Oral history interview with Joseph Ichiuji

    Oral History

    Joseph Ichiuji describes his parents as having immigrated to the US in the early 1900s; his father being a truck farmer and then owning a shoe repair business; working in a fish cannery and living in Fresno, CA until Executive Order 9066, which required that all Japanese Americans be evacuated to internment camps; being sent by train and truck to Flagstaff, Arizona, where they were assigned to barracks number three of the internment camp at Poston, AZ; conditions at the camp, which was run like an army installation with strict regimentation; volunteering for the 442 Combat Team, formed in 1943 and consisting solely of Japanese American soldiers who had families living in internment camps; fighting in Italy at the front lines north of Rome; liberating Livorno, Italy; helping liberate a subcamp of Dachau; conditions of prisoners still alive at the camp; helping two Lithuanian prisoners reconnect with important people in their lives; going home in December 1945 to find his parents released from the internment camp; helping his father with his business until May 1946 when he went to Washington, DC, where he worked in government service for 37 years; and the reunion of Japanese American soldiers in Los Angeles, CA, which a few of the survivors of Dachau attended.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Horowitz

    Oral History

    Ruth Horowitz (née Salzburg), born March 23, 1930 in Hamburg, Germany, describes her Polish parents Isaac Salzberg and Rose R. Kleinert and her sister; life in Hamburg, where they lived until November 1938; leaving Hamburg two days before Kristallnacht; how Hamburg was very open to Jews until Hitler’s regime, though she experienced many instances of antisemitism; being fascinated with the 1936 Olympics; how her father’s efforts to leave Germany began in 1936 and finally succeeded when he dramatically threatened to commit suicide at the US Consul if the visas were not granted; how crossing the Atlantic was very difficult, with cold and seasickness, but they arrived and went to Detroit, MI for a short while, then to New York City, NY, and finally to Washington, DC; learning to speak English by going to lots of movies; her father’s death at age 54; her mother’s transformation from being a housewife to running her husband’s jewelry business after he died; the wartime antisemitism, the problem of quotas, the Nuremburg trials, and the State of Israel; getting married in 1950; traveling to Germany in 1995; and her views on present day Germany.

    Oral history interview with Hermann Kosak

    Oral History

    Hermann Kosak, born May 2, 1924 in Vienna, Austria, describes his younger sister, Margaret; how antisemitism was pervasive and being involved in instances of physical violence as early as kindergarten; the growth of the Nazi movement in Austria; the Anschluss in March 1938; seeing Hitler arriving in Vienna in his car; how quickly the Jews were affected by the Nazi’s changes; Kristallnacht and being arrested the next morning; trying to get out of Vienna at age 14 and finally getting to Brussels, Belgium with his mother; the Germans attack on Belgium; how enrolling in art school after the invasion was the most important thing he did; learning survival, watchfulness, and self-reliance at age 16; beginning a diary on May 9, 1940, describing daily life, and keeping the diary until three weeks before liberation; how out of 50 family members, 43 were killed in camps; finally getting visas for him and his sister in November 1947 by forcing his way into the US Embassy and leaving for the United States; arriving in New York City, NY; being a painting instructor; being drafted, released to Reserves, working for a while, and being called back for the Korean War; being married and eventually getting a job with Boeing as an illustrator; and his views on the effects of the Holocaust on humanity.

    Oral history interview with Dolly Bestandig

    Oral History

    Dolly Bestandig (née Hirsch), born July 24, 1939 in Vilna (Vilnius), Lithuania, discusses her family, which had been in Lithuania for 11 generations; her father, who was a mathematical engineer, and her mother, who was a concert pianist; how her parents were both very religious and wealthy; being sent to the Vilna ghetto, the hardship of which marked the beginning of her mother’s psychological changes; the presence of 90 members of her mother’s family in the ghetto; how at age five, after living in the Minsk ghetto, she and her mother were sent to Auschwitz, where her mother managed to save her life by hiding her in a garbage can during the day while her mother worked; being moved to Bergen-Belsen with her mother and father after four months, where she was again hidden in a garbage can every day until liberation on April 15, 1945 by English soldiers; being sent to Sweden for medical care; being hospitalized in Gothenburg and then in Stockholm, where surgery on her palate was performed; leaving Sweden in 1947 and going to New York, where an uncle met her family; going to Mexico City, where two uncles were waiting; how her mother’s psychological state was deteriorating and she died in 1958; having flashbacks to her life in the camps; going to the Margaret Sanger Institute in New York City in 1967, where she received counseling help and tuberculosis was found throughout her body; recovering and adopting two children; being the Sub-Director of Hebrew instruction at the Yeshiva in Mexico City; and her feelings about her survival.

    Oral history interview with Goldie Gendelman

    Oral History

    Goldie Gendelman, born November 17, 1933 in Lechowichi (possibly Lyakhavichy, Belarus), Poland near Baranowichi (possibly Baranovichi, Belarus), discusses her parents, Chaim and Chana Wolochiwianski; growing up in an extremely Orthodox family; being raised to speak Polish and Yiddish; her family’s attempt to immigrate to the United States; how she and her family made it to Cuba and stayed there for 11 years; living in Regla, Cuba; her struggles to communicate in Spanish; being run over by a bus in Cuba; how she and her family finally were able to immigrate to the United States in 1948; her paternal uncle in the United States who assisted with the immigration process; her experience with antisemitism in Poland and Cuba; graduating from high school in the United States; volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum; and her feelings about leaving Poland, living in Cuba, and starting a new life in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Rhoda Kuflik

    Oral History

    Rhoda Kuflik (née Ruzenka Husen), born in October 1937 in Kitev, Poland (now Kuty, Ukraine), describes living in the Kuty ghetto; escaping to Romania and hiding there; being liberated by the Soviets; and immigrating to the United States in 1948.

    Oral history interview with William Hess

    Oral History

    William Hess was born William Verna on August 8, 1921 in Stuttgart, Germany. He was an only child and lived a pleasant life there. Despite the Nuremberg laws, he was permitted to continue his schooling as his father served during World War I. Nevertheless, they lost the service of their maid. William experienced little anti-Semitism in Germany but knew that Hitler made anti-Semitic speeches and had newspaper articles written against the Jews. His father's business suffered little from the boycotting but he sold it in 1938. Anti-Semitism was more severe in the outlying towns than in Stuttgart. William studied English for two years before immigrating to Danville, Illinois with his uncle's assistance in 1937. He had difficulty adjusting to the US so had an English tutor. Additionally, he had difficulty living on his wages of $12.50 as $9 went toward room and board and he also had to cover tutoring and transportation expenses. Kristallnacht and his father's internment in Dachau influenced his parents to leave Germany in 1939 for Danville.

    Oral history interview with Jutta Levy

    Oral History

    Jutta Levy, born in 1926 in Hamburg, Germany, describes growing up in a pleasant upper middle class family in a large Jewish community; listening to Hitler’s speeches on the radio and seeing him on a school field trip; witnessing Nazi book burning; learning of the death of Hindenburg; drastic changes in Germany after 1933; living in fear as children were taken from school and acquaintances disappeared; father’s dramatic pleading for visas to leave Germany; obtaining passage on the last train from Hamburg on November 6, 1938; traveling to Paris, France and then to Cherbourg, France, from which her family sailed to New York on the Queen Mary; arriving on November 11, 1938; learning about life in concentration camps from family members who survived the Holocaust; and her return to Hamburg and visit to Bergen-Belsen as an adult.

    Oral history interview with Wolfgang Mueller

    Oral History

    Wolfgang Mueller, born in Hanover, Germany on March 10, 1919, discusses his father’s role as a leader in the Jewish community and being head of B’nai B’rith; being aware of the Nazis at an early stage and seeing posters on kiosks denouncing Jews; refusing to say “Heil Hitler” in school and being advised by the principal to leave the country; going to London, England the summer after his Bar Mitzvah (1932); attending Ewell School and going back to Germany on vacations, pretending he was English; attending Cranbrook School with funding from a relative, Max Nordhaus, in the United States; receiving an affidavit from Nordhaus and getting a visa to the US; arriving in the US July 26, 1936 and moving to New Mexico; his mother and sister emigrating; hearing about Kristallnacht; being drafted in September 1941 and being sent to Florida; being in the Signal Corps; applying to officer’s candidate school and being in a group that called themselves the fighting 614s; being made into an MP after his superiors found out he was from Germany; being stationed in Tampa, FL and Jacksonville, FL; getting his American citizenship; volunteering to go overseas; being stationed in England as a technical supply sergeant and a liaison with the RAF; working after V-E Day in the Air Technical Intelligence Office; interrogating prisoners in Czechoslovakia and Austria and engineers at Zeiss works; being in Nordhausen for an hour; translating V-2 documents; being discharged on January 11, 1947; getting married; working in the meat business, real estate, and as a wholesale fish company; being proud to be Jewish; and his dedication to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Klari Rudnai

    Oral History

    Klari Rudnai (née Takacs), born May 19, 1930 in Budapest, Hungary, describes her well-to-do family that was not at all religious; her older sister; her father, who was her hero, and her strict mother; how their cook was instrumental in saving their lives by getting counterfeit papers with non-Jewish names for them and by bringing them food as they hid in a one-room apartment in 1944; moving to a nice hotel and having to go to the hotel’s underground bunkers during all the bombing for almost nine months; her father’s seven siblings, who were all sent to Auschwitz; going back to the hotel, the Vadasqur, until it too was bombed; moving to a new villa in 1946; how when she was 19 years she was picked up by Russian soldiers in a jeep and had to fight her way out of an attack by them and was saved by American soldiers who took her to the hospital for a few days; marrying an American soldier and wanting to go to the United States; finishing high school; how the solitary military life and moving a lot to odd places didn’t suit her; divorcing her husband and moving back to Washington, DC; getting married in 1960 to a Jewish doctor, who had been in many concentration camps and was instrumental in getting her interested in her Jewish religion; volunteering at the USHMM in the Archives and Volunteer Services; enjoying all parts of talking to people and the volunteers in her job; and reading a lot of books and newspapers about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Jill Pauly

    Oral History

    Jill Pauly, born May 1, 1933 in Cologne, Germany, describes her large, very well-to-do country family; the efforts of her grandmother and uncle to get money to Holland and make arrangements for the family to get to Kenya, where they bought two cattle farms that eventually were very successful; wanting a more orthodox Jewish life after the war; moving to New York City then moving to Vineland, NJ; her family buying a chicken farm, which was destroyed by a hurricane in 1952; the death of her father when he was 66 years old; her mother being her guiding light in terms of religious practice; attending the Pierce School of Business in Philadelphia, PA; working for the Quakers and then for a synagogue; getting her real estate license at the University of Maryland; her two adopted children; retiring in December 1993 from real estate; volunteering at the USHMM in Visitors’ Services and in the Office of Survivor Relations; having very strong feelings about people having access to the Museum; and some of the artifacts that she’s donated to the Museum.

    Oral history interview with Jack Reuben

    Oral History

    Jack Ruben was born Yaakov Ruben on December 8, 1921 in Cincinnati, Ohio and after six months the family moved to LA. He was the only child to Joseph and Sarah Basha Ruben who came from Russia and were not religious. His mother was a garment worker and his father sold fruits and vegetables in a horse and cart in the local area. Due to an eye condition, Jack went to a health camp for a year. Jack's father left the family in 1927 and since lost track of him. Jack was placed in foster homes until the 11th grade and would visit his mother on the weekends. He graduated from high school and worked his way through UCLA by working part-time. In summer of '43 Jack volunteered for the Air Corps and was sent to Pomona College for nine months to study meteorology. He was not picked to be a meteorology officer so joined the infantry and was selected to be a coding clerk. He went to several camps and was shipped to Le Havre. His division had little information of the overall war and no details of concentration camps. From there he was part of the effort to form a bridge over the Moselle and next in a major assault at the Rhine River. Jack was in the Division furthest east in Germany which took many German prisoners as they quickly drove east. His company going east and meeting a surrendering German battalion who were permitted to march on their own. His company formed perimeters around villages and often stayed overnight in a civilian's home. They went through a rural area and saw dead prisoners and dead horses along the road without understanding the situation. They reached Ohrdruf Concentration Camp and saw a few emaciated prisoners leaving and many dead bodies piled up or laying on the ground. Jack did not realize it was a concentration camp at the time or that others existed until later when he returned to the US. The Army newspaper did not publish such information. From there, they went to the Czech border for 3 months which they guarded until VE Day. Then Jack was relocated to a relocation camp near Paris until Christmas '45 when he was shipped home and arrived in NY on New Year's Day '46. He was discharged and married a second time as his first wife was killed in an auto accident. Subsequently, he received a BA in economics, MA in family counseling and PhD in psychology and has practiced 10 years in the field. He has four children. Jack still does not understand how the crimes in the concentration camps could have been performed by fellow human beings.

    Oral history interview with David Bayer

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Tilda Finzi Cohen

    Oral History

    Tilda Finzi Cohen (née Mazel Tov “Tilda” Finzi) born in Split, Yugoslavia on July 11, 1933, discusses Germans passing through their city in early 1941; her father getting called into the army and returning after one month; the Italians occupying Split, closing businesses and setting a curfew; not being permitted to go to school and the formation of community Jewish schools in different locations around city; her uncle being imprisoned and bringing him food; the Italian capitulation in September 1943; her family joining other people fleeing to partisans in the mountains; going with her mother to Brac Island, to Vis Island; sailing to Bari two days before Yom Kippur; living in a camp then a private house; the Germans dropping gas bombs on ships on December 2, 1943; her family moving to a village near Bari and attending school; attending a Seder arranged by the Jewish Brigade in Bitonto, Italy in the spring of 1944; how after the war their relatives told them of the camps and atrocities and advised them not to return to Split; her family moving to Milan, Italy in 1948; her family immigrating to the United States in 1950; finishing high school and attending college; getting married; and feeling that she is not a part of any country and that she lost her childhood.

    Oral history interview with Zwi Golombek

    Oral History

    Zwi Golombek, born in Warsaw, Poland on September 15, 1934, describes his father’s large construction business; the formation of the Warsaw ghetto and his family moving into one room on Nowolipki Street; his father’s ability to exit and enter the ghetto because he possessed building permits; being aware of danger and seeing beatings; his father striking a German guard in early 1942 and being taken to a ghetto prison then Treblinka; his Uncle Mietek placing him with the Abramzuc family in Jozefow, Poland and his mother and sister disappearing from the ghetto two weeks later; staying hidden for three years and his uncle visiting often and playing the family to hide him; being called Henyek; his uncle placing him in a kibbutzim in Poland and Germany after the war; going to Israel on October 6, 1948; working in Tel Aviv and joining the Israeli army in 1952; fighting war in 1956, 1967, 1973, and 1982; getting married; and his two sons.

    Oral history interview with Samuel B. Hagner

    Oral History

    Samuel Hagner, born November 1, 1925 in Philadelphia, PA, discusses his Quaker parents; becoming a Quaker member at age 14; going to a Quaker work camp; being told about antisemitic events in Europe by a Jewish friend named Doris Weil and not believing her; his brother being a conscientious objector and working in a forestry camp during war; attending Oberlin College; being inducted into the army in January 1944 as a 1-A-O; training as a medical corpsman; sailing to Europe in December 1944; joining 7th Army in Germany and moving as the front moved; being made an armed guard at a billet even though he refused to carry a gun; going by truck to help liberate Dachau; the overwhelming experiences of seeing Dachau and feeling anger towards the SS guards; staying in the camp for one week; wavering about being a conscientious objector and writing to Doris to tell her she was right; going to a German hospital with nuns; going to France and the war ending before he was deployed to the Philippines; becoming a scrub nurse during plastic surgery on war victims in Indiana; being discharged and returning to college in the fall of 1946; practicing psychiatry for adults; living with his Dachau experience but not being at peace with it; and his continued abhorrence of war.

    Oral history interview with Werner E. Michel

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Guta Jacobson

    Oral History

    Guta Jacobson (née Rogowitz), born on April 23, 1925 in Łódź, Poland, discusses her early life in Łódź; relations between Jews and Christians; her activity in a Zionist organization; various holiday celebrations; the German invasion of Poland and the implementation of Nazi race laws; food shortages; the establishment of the Łódź ghetto; her family’s indecision on whether or not to flee; life in the ghetto; losing her faith in God after seeing her parents give up their children; her father’s disappearance; the typhus epidemic; hearing rumors of Chelmno and Auschwitz; hiding from the liquidation of the ghetto and their eventual deportation to Auschwitz in August of 1944; her immediate understanding of what was happening in the camp; Dr. Josef Mengele taking her mother away; being transported to a camp in Birnbäumel, Germany (now Gruszeczka, Poland), to work digging anti-tank trenches; the differing conditions of various camps; hiding in the woods during a death march; her return to a liberated Łódź; marrying her husband; her reunion with her sister who had been recuperating in Sweden after the liberation of Bergen-Belsen; immigrating to the United States; the birth of her children; the death of her husband; her avoidance of discussing her experiences with her children when they were young; her motivations for sharing her story now; and her hopes that the world will never forget.

    Oral history interview with Helen Luksenburg

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with William Luksenburg

    Oral History

    William Luksenburg describes going on a death march from Regensburg, Germany to Lebenau, Germany; a German farmer picking him up from the road, where he fell; being brought by the farmer to American troops stationed in the nearby town of Laufen, where he was treated for malnutrition; his cousin coming to the same camp a few months later; returning with his cousin to Bayreuth, Germany, where there were other family members; reuniting in Prague with his future wife, Helen, whom he met in the Blechhammer work camp; getting married in 1947; receiving money and support from the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Agency; attending a technical school organized by the Organization for Rehabilitation through Training; immigrating to the United States in September 1949 with Helen; and becoming a mechanic and starting his own business. [Note: This interview focuses on the interviewee’s post-Holocaust experiences. There is an earlier interview focusing on the interviewee’s Holocaust experience. This interview can be accessed by requesting RG-50.030*140.]

    Oral history interview with Rose Weisfeld

    Oral History

    Rose Weisfeld (née Friedman), born on March 28, 1914 in Radom, Poland, discusses her early life and schooling; social integration between Jews and Christians at home and at school; keeping Jewish customs and traditions at home; her religious education; her brothers’ conscription in the Polish army; being badly injured and hospitalized for a year; her family’s forced relocation to the Radom ghetto; her father’s death; the liquidation of the ghetto; doing factory work; being transported to Auschwitz via cattle car; the process of selections; being transported to Ravensbrück in 1944; being liberated by Swedish soldiers and their compassion; weighing 32 pounds at liberation; her hospitalization in Denmark and Sweden; finding work in a factory and regaining her humanity; her marriage in Sweden to another survivor; the birth of her children; finding her brother through the Red Cross after four years; immigrating to the United States to be with her brother; the difficulties of adjusting to life in the US; and the importance of raising her children with Jewish traditions.

    Oral history interview with Ruth E. Greifer

    Oral History

    Ruth Greifer (née Dahl), born May 30, 1922 in Geilenkirchen (near Aachen), Germany, discusses her father, who was a cattle dealer, and her Dutch mother; attending a private Catholic school and experiencing antisemitism but being treated well by the nuns; how the plaque on father’s business was shattered in 1938; moving to Valkenburg, Holland in the spring of 1938; Germans occupying the city on May 10, 1940 and her family hiding in catacombs during the bombing; having to wear the yellow star and obey curfew; her father’s business being taken away; the Germans ordering them to leave in June 1942, but she was allowed to stay because she was sick; her brother and two aunts being taken to Auschwitz; how a Mr. Jansen from the underground arranged for she and her parents to go into hiding; going to a coal miner’s house, while her parents went to another; being thought of as a risk and being relocated to a doctor’s house to be a maid; going into hiding at the Robertson’s house near Treebeek and Hoensbroek with another Jewish woman; getting money from the underground organization; hearing about the June 1944 invasion; going to a house in Treebeek; the heavy bombing in the city and hiding in a potato bin for three days; being liberated September 17, 1944; returning to her parents in Valkenburg; the loss of all of her mother’s Dutch family; sailing to the United states in the spring of 1948; settling with her sister in Pittsburgh, PA; getting married April 8, 1951 and having three daughters; moving to Washington, DC in 1957; and her feelings about Germany.

    Oral history interview with Nesse Godin

    Oral History

    Nesse Godin (née Galperin), born on March 28, 1928 in Siaulai, Lithuania, discusses her life after the war; being liberated by the Russians in Chynowie (known as Chinow in German) near Wejherowo, Poland on March 10, 1945; suffering from typhoid and dysentery and weighing 65 pounds; joining her mother and brother in Feldafing DP camp; going to ORT and UNRRA sponsored classes; getting married to Jack Godin, who had escaped from the Vilna Ghetto and whose family was killed in Ponary; having her first child in Munich, Germany; immigrating to United States in 1950 and settling in Washington, DC; becoming a citizen in 1955 and working as a dressmaker for 26 years; raising her children; sharing her Holocaust experience; working with the UJA, Jewish Community Council and the Anti-Defamation League of B’nai B’rith, and the US Holocaust Memorial Council; working on projects at USHMM, including the “Remember the Children” exhibit, the ID project, and within the education and development departments; and her thoughts on the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Maryla Korn

    Oral History

    Maryla Korn (née Orgel), born on June 10, 1938 in Kraków, Poland, discusses going with her mother first to Wieliczka and then to Bochnia between late 1940 and early 1941; hiding with a peasant family but crying so much that she was returned to her mother; going to a ghetto in Bochnia at the end of 1941; her mother working outside the ghetto in a factory; taking messages outside the ghetto and bringing back food; leaving the ghetto in June 1943 and separating from her mother; carrying diamonds and money, but no luggage and bribing Germans and the Judenrat; traveling by truck to the border then by foot at night; being guided by paid partisans; her grandfather being shot at Bochnia cemetery, her grandmother being taken to Auschwitz, and her uncle being taken to Belzec in the summer of 1942; being by Czech collaborators in Kosice, Slovakia; being released and proceeding to Hungary with help from the Joint; being caught and sent to a prison in Budapest and the Joint getting her out; going to Usod, Hungary in the fall of 1943 and staying there until April 1944 under name of Orglowska; living as a Christian; being treated for gangrene in her leg; the roundup of Hungarian Jews in April 1944; her mother stealing passes and going to Budapest; staying with a Jewish Polish friend and then going to Bucharest, Romania with help from the Joint; almost boarding two different ships in Constanta, Romania going to Palestine, one of which (the Merkur) sank and the other ended up in Cyprus; being liberated by the Russians in the spring of 1945; going to Budapest and staying in a children’s home while her mother went back to Poland to check on family; her mother setting up a business in Vienna, Austria with an uncle; her father returning traumatized from the war; going to Brussels, Belgium in the winter of 1946-1947; going to Israel in 1951; living in both Israel and Brussels until immigrating to the United states in May 1961; getting married in June 1961 to David Korn, who is also a survivor; visiting her parents in Germany; and her work translating for USHMM.

    Oral history interview with Michel Margosis

    Oral History

    Michel Margosis, born in Brussels, Belgium on September 2, 1928, discusses immigrating to the United States in 1943; being taken in by father’s cousin in Brooklyn, then to foster home; his parents coming to the US in 1946; graduating from high school in 1947; graduating with honors from Brooklyn College in 1951; enlisting in the army and being sent to Germany as an interpreter but requesting to be transferred; becoming a medic near Verdun; feeling very American, but did not speak about his childhood with other soldiers; his feeling about Germany; working at USHMM with the Speakers Bureau and translating materials; speaking about his past; and being featured in the book “The Triumphant Spirit” by Nicholas del Calzo.

    Oral history interview with Lena Jurand

    Oral History

    Lena Jurand (Salzberg), born in Przemysl, Poland on September 13, 1917, discusses being an only child, educated in a Catholic school then at a music conservatory; meeting her husband Julian Jurand in 1931 and getting married in May 1940; living in the Russian part of town; her father being chosen for the Judenrat when the Germans took over; Jews having to give up jewelry and wear a star; the ghetto being formed in July 1942; moving with parents and in-laws from Lvov; working in a factory disinfecting uniforms; her father being taken away and how she went to the Gestapo headquarters and saved him from deportation to Auschwitz; meeting a Polish woman in the factory who offered to hide her and Julian; hiding for 22 months in room off of kitchen in a woman’s apartment; being liberated by Russians in August 1944; living in an apartment with her husband and cousins; living in Munich, Germany with UNRRA staff of the Neu Freimann DP Camp; teaching music to child survivors in camp for one year; moving to Genoa, Italy, where Julian practiced medicine; visiting her uncle for six months in New York, NY; going to the United States in 1951; living in New Jersey, where Julian worked in state hospital as a psychiatrist; and Julian becoming the clinical director at St. Elizabeth’s in Washington, D.C.

    Oral history interview with Wallace Witkowski

    Oral History

    Wallace A. Witkowski, born January 12, 1928 in Kielce, Poland, discusses his escape from Poland on a ship to Goteborg, Sweden in 1948; going to the United States; how his sister was caught by the communists and imprisoned; his struggle to find his father who had immigrated to the United States earlier; settling in Detroit, Michigan and adjusting to American life; how his mother and sister arrived in the U.S. later; attending high school and then Wayne State University; getting married in 1951; working as a radio disc jockey using the on-air name Jan Alexander; earning a law degree; working in Washington, DC and traveling between the United States and Poland; working for the Federal Trade Commission; living and working in Micronesia; his thoughts on religion and how the Holocaust affected him; his identity as a Catholic; his work as a translator; and his work with the Foreign Claims Settlement Commission.

    Oral history interview with Peter Masters

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Lena Gitter

    Oral History

    Lena Gitter (née Lieba Rosenblatt), born in 1905 in Vienna, Austria, discusses her life after the Holocaust; immigrating to the US in July 1938 with her husband and small daughter; her husband who worked as a physician; feeling guilty for many years about having escaped Vienna before the Holocaust; her long involvement with the Montessori schools both in Vienna and the United States; the Montessori method; working with people in Mississippi under Johnson’s War on Poverty program; the death of her husband in 1974; her plan to donate her collection of early childhood education materials to a library in Vienna; working under several Presidents of the United States.

    Oral history interview with Jacob Wiener

    Oral History

    Jacob Wiener (né Koppel G. Zwienicki), born March 25, 1917 in Bremen, Germany, discusses his experiences in the United States after World War II; the reaction to the war by the American media; his wife’s experience on the Kindertransport; his memories of watching Nazi war crime trials on television; his thoughts on Israel and Palestine; the Eichmann trial; how he was involved with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum from its founding; Holocaust education in American schools; antisemitism in the United States; and how he founded a school for mentally disabled children in the 1950s.

    Oral history interview with Noah Roitman

    Oral History

    Noah Roitman, born in Baranowicze, Poland (Baranavichy, Belarus) on January 10, 1923, discusses his religious upbringing and schooling; being very athletic; receiving warnings from his Christian friends in November 1938; his town being under Soviet rule in 1939; people being deported and his house being burned down; the German invasion on June 27, 1941; the formation of a ghetto on December 12, 1941; wearing the yellow star and working in arms factory; joining the resistance group of Mome Kopelovitz; the first action in the ghetto in March 1942; joining the partisans led by Pougatchov in the forest in August 1942; his activities sabotaging trains and bringing others out of ghetto (saving approximately 80 people); being sent to Pinsk, Belarus in late 1943; joining a group led by Major Igor, attacking trains; being ordered into Russian Army in Slutsk, Belarus in December 1943; fighting Germans and seeing Warsaw destroyed; being wounded by a sniper outside of Berlin, Germany; running a canteen for the Russian Army at the end of the war; returning to Poland; helping Jews get to Czechoslovakia; being captured and jailed, but escaping to Łódź, Poland; meeting his wife; traveling through Germany and France to get to Israel; being detained in Cyprus for 3 to 4 months; having a construction business in Israel; and immigrating to the United States in October 1963.

    Oral history interview with Richard W. Peterson

    Oral History

    Richard W. Peterson, born September 29, 1925 in Iowa, discusses his family’s Danish background; growing up in a Baptist family; first learning about the war in Europe and his family’s concern for Denmark; antisemitism in Iowa; hearing about the attack on Pearl Harbor; his involvement with ROTC and Boy Scouts; attending Drake University; joining the Army Specialized Training Reserve Program (ASTRP); reporting to Fort Crook for the reserve program and then to Camp Dodge in Iowa; being sworn into the U.S. Army; training at Camp Livingston in Louisiana with the 86th Blackhawk division; being assigned to A Company, 342nd Infantry; being sent to Le Havre, France; traveling through France, the Netherlands, and Germany; fighting in a battle in Attendorn, Germany; entering what appeared to be a factory in Attendorn and seeing starving people there; the reaction of his comrades to seeing the prisoners; the liberation of Auschwitz; being sent to the Philippines from September 1945 to March 1946; finishing his degree at the University of Iowa; graduating from law school in 1951; getting married; his father’s appointment to the Iowa Supreme Court; how he was a United States Magistrate Judge; his three children; and how he feels about American current events, politics, and world news.

    Oral history interview with Riane Gruss

    Oral History

    Riane Gruss (née Wohl), born on August 18, 1932 in Vienna, Austria, describes her father, who was a banker in Kraków, Poland and an industrialist in Vienna, and how her parents lived half a year in each place; she and her siblings being raised by a governess in Vienna; being in Kraków on September 1, 1939; going to Jaroslav, where there was bombing, then to Zloczow and to Kolomyja; her father and brother being captured at the border and her brother’s release; returning to Zloczow; being sent to Siberia by the Russians in July 1940; her younger brother getting scarlet fever; arriving in August 1940 near Yakutsk and Aldan and going to a labor camp; conditions in the camp; the hard physical labor for adults; how in April 1941 the NKVD said mothers and children could leave; their New York relatives getting them Bolivian passports; leaving in May and meeting her father in Lvov (L'viv, Ukraine); going to a farm in country for four months after the German invasion on June 22, 1941; her family following her uncle Joseph Stieglitz to Munkacs, Hungary (Mukacheve, Ukraine); getting Polish Christian papers; going to Budapest, Hungary; going to Szeged, Hungary, where her father had to be hospitalized; the children being hidden in the fall of 1944 in a caretaker’s house in Buda, Hungary; escaping when the Russians arrived and reuniting with her parents; going with her family to Mako, Hungary for four weeks then to Vienna; her parents returning to Kraków; going with a smuggler to Brno, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic) and then joining her parents in Kraków; going with her family to Stockholm, Sweden; going to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in October 1946; going to New York, in February 1951; and getting married in December 195 and having two children.

    Oral history interview with Regina Spiegel

    Oral History

    Regina Spiegel, (née Gutman) born May 12, 1926 in Radom, Poland, discusses her post-war experiences starting with her liberation; traveling with 3,000 other female prisoners by train from Elsnig, Germany to Dachau, Germany; how the train stopped on the way to Dachau because the railway line had been bombed; how the train itself was bombed by the Allies while stopped on the tracks; being able to escape during the bombing; traveling with 15 other women by horse and buggy to Poland; sleeping in German homes while traveling to Poland; avoiding large groups of Russian soldiers; promising her mother and her boyfriend that if they were separated during the war, they would meet in Radom, Poland; how she and her friends boarded a train in Poznań, Poland without any money; meeting a man on the train with whom she had been imprisoned in Pionki, Poland; returning to Radom where she was told that returning Jews were being killed; returning to the Radom Ghetto, where many displaced persons were gathering; writing her name on a list of displaced persons in the Radom Ghetto; traveling from Radom to Kozienice to reunite with her boyfriend, Sam; leaving Poland with Sam and traveling by train to Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); traveling with the Joint Distribution Committee from Prague to Pilsen, Czech Republic and then to Germany; staying with Sam in the displaced persons camp Föhrenwald; her marriage to Sam in 1946; moving to Stuttgart, Germany, where she learned to be a seamstress through ORT classes; her involvement with the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York; her religious beliefs and how they changed throughout the war; moving to Washington, DC; how she and Sam learned to speak English; working as a seamstress before giving birth to a daughter in August 1951; her thoughts on the Yugoslavian conflict; her work with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum during its early development; her activity with the Jewish Holocaust Survivors and Friends of Greater Washington; returning with Sam to Auschwitz in 1975; speaking publically about the Holocaust; receiving an award from the United Jewish Appeal; and how she and Sam take groups of 16 to 18 year olds to Poland and Israel through the B'nai B'rith Youth Organization.

    Oral history interview with Charles Stein

    Oral History

    Charles Stein (né Karl Robert Stein), born in Vienna, Austria, on November 28, 1919, describes his childhood; attending medical school at the University of Vienna; immigrating to the United States and arriving on December 18, 1939; his draft into the army on October 7, 1941; discovering that his parents had gone into the Łódź ghetto; training at Camp Ritchie in Maryland; going to Normandy, France with the 9th Infantry Division as the commander of a prisoner-of-war interrogation team; helping to liberate Nordhausen and interrogating its Ukrainian guards; becoming an Army captain and then the chief of the translation section in the Office of Military History at the Pentagon; serving in Korea and Tokyo for five years; marrying an Air Force lieutenant in Tokyo; returning to the US and settling in Washington, DC; working for the Air Force Intelligence and for the State Department until his retirement in 1978; serving as a foreign service officer and being responsible for the resettlement of refugees in Europe; and writing about his experiences during the war.

    Oral history interview with Hannah Kalman

    Oral History

    Hannah Kalman (née Hannah Finer Kalmanowicz), born in 1912 in Opoczno, Poland and describes her family; moving to Łódź, Poland when she was 12 and joining a Zionist organization; meeting her husband in the Zionist organization and getting married in 1937; moving into the Łódź ghetto in 1939; living with her son, sister, and nephew in a small room with bad conditions; being deported with her family on one of the last transports out of the Łódź ghetto; never seeing her son and nephew again after their arrival at Auschwitz; her transport to Waldeslust, Germany, where she did hard labor; going on a death march to Bergen-Belsen; conditions in the camp; being liberated with her sister on April 15, 1945; the death of her sister two months after liberation; traveling around Poland looking for relatives; reuniting with her husband later in Poland; moving to Germany and having a son; immigrating to the United States; settling in Scranton, Pennsylvania; having a daughter; and living in Israel for a short time but ultimately settling in the United States for medical treatment.

    Oral history interview with Morris Rosen

    Oral History

    Morris Rosen, born on November 10, 1922 in Częstochowa, Poland, describes his family; being forced to paint rooms for German troops during the war; his deportation to Theresienstadt; being forced on a death march to Buchenwald; receiving help from the Red Cross after the war; traveling around Poland and Germany trying to find his sister; his time spent in displaced persons camps; his memories of the Nuremberg Trials; immigrating to the United States and settling in New York; the mental stress with which he dealt after the war; attending the international law program at Columbia; moving to Baltimore, Maryland in November, 1949; getting married in 1953; collecting items from the World War Two era; and his reflections on the state of antisemitism in today’s world.

    Oral history interview with Sam Spiegel

    Oral History

    Sam Spiegel, born in Kozienice, Poland on August 23, 1922, describes his family and childhood; being forced into a ghetto; his father’s involvement in the underground movement; working for the Judenrat and getting papers to leave the ghetto and get extra food; his deportation to Auschwitz in 1942; meeting his future wife in the camp; the Ukrainian camp guards; conditions in the camp and how inmates helped each other; going on a death march as the Allies neared Auschwitz; returning home and experiencing antisemitism; spending time in displaced persons camps; working for the United Nations Relief Organization and the Joint Distribution Committee after the war; getting married; immigrating to the United States; and returning to Europe to visit the concentration camps.

    Oral history interview with Fred Gutter

    Oral History

    Fred Gutter, born on December 25, 1926 in Sanok, Poland, describes his family and childhood; his memories of celebrating the Jewish holidays and Sabbath services; attending a high school and experiencing antisemitism; increasing persecution against Jews in the 1930s; moving to Lwów because of the difficulties his family faced; his family’s capture by Russian troops and living under Russian control; being released by the Russians at the end of the war and briefly returning to Sanok; staying in several displaced persons camps; reuniting with his father after the war; receiving aid from the Joint Distribution Committee; spending some time in Palestine and fighting in the 1948 war; immigrating to the United States in 1959; and his feelings about American politics.

    Oral history interview with Henry Greenbaum

    Oral History

    Henry Greenbaum, born on April 1, 1928 in Starachowice, Poland, describes his family and childhood; his memories of his family celebrating the Jewish holidays; being too young to understand the persecution that was happening around him; his family deciding that one of his sisters should immigrate to the United States in 1937; the establishment of a ghetto in Starachowice; his deportation to a labor camp in October 1942; attempting to escape but getting severely wounded and having to stay in the camp; his transfers to Auschwitz and then Flossenbürg; going on a death march from Flossenbürg; his liberation by the U.S. Army on April 25, 1945; spending time in a displaced persons camp after the war until his sister in America could send papers for him and his brother; immigrating to the United States in June 1946; adjusting to life in America and finding a job at a department store; settling in the Washington metro area; and interacting with other Holocaust survivors who live in his community.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Alper

    Oral History

    Ruth Alper, born on February 18, 1932 in Germany, describes her family and childhood; experiencing little antisemitism as a child; her memories of Kristallnacht; receiving an affidavit from family in Detroit, MI in 1939 to immigrate to the United States; arriving in Cuba and staying there until 1941, when she and her family moved to Miami, FL; the small Jewish community in Havana, Cuba; listening to the progress of the war on the radio; experiencing antisemitism in Miami; her recollections of the response of the American Jewish community experiencing the war from abroad; and creating a new life for herself in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Michael Lin

    Oral History

    Michael Lin, born in Riga, Latvia on September 14, 1936, describes his family and childhood; the Jewish community of Riga; the beginning of the war in 1941 and his family being forced to leave their home to settle in Yaroslavl (IAroslavl' ), Russia; catching malaria and developing pneumonia in 1941 but not being able to get medication; moving to another small village in Russia, where he remained until 1944 when his family moved farther east; having to shave his head to avoid getting lice; his father’s draft into the Russian Army; the end of the war and preparing to return to Riga; his experiences with antisemitism in Russia; beginning school after the war in Latvia; his draft into the Russian Army in September 1955; attending school in Moscow after he left the army; immigrating to Israel in 1969 with his wife and children; immigrating to the United States a few years later; and his reflections on sharing his memories of the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Hannah Kalman

    Oral History

    Chana Kalman, born on January 20, 1912 in Opoczno, Poland, describes her family and childhood; her experiences with antisemitism; moving to Łódź, Poland when she was eighteen years old; participating in a Zionist organization with several other young people; working during the day and attending a Hebrew school at night; getting married shortly before the death of her father in 1937; giving birth to a child on January 25, 1939; moving into the Łódź ghetto in 1940 and struggling to find food for herself and her son; the liquidation of the ghetto in August 1944; her deportation to Auschwitz with her sister and being forced around by SS men; her transfer to Bergen-Belsen shortly before her liberation; finding out about the death of her husband and child; getting remarried in 1946 and having a son and a daughter; remaining in Germany as a displaced person until 1950, when she immigrated to the United States; settling in Scranton, Pennsylvania; spending some time in Israel once her children had grown up; and her reflections on life in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Dorrit L. Ostberg

    Oral History

    Dorrit Liane Ostberg, born in Vienna, Austria on September 29, 1929, describes her family; her father fleeing to Paris, France after the Germans entered Austria; escaping to Paris with her mother and sister but discovering that her father had fled to Yugoslavia; arriving in Yugoslavia several months later; obtaining Yugoslavian citizenship and living in Slavonski-Brod and Zagreb (both in present day Croatia); fleeing to Crikvenica, Croatia after Croatian guards arrested her father; her family’s deportation to an Italian internment camp on Rab; attending school until she contracted hepatitis and had to stay in a hospital for four months; her liberation in September 1943; her family fleeing on a fishing boat to Italy and living openly as Jews in Bari, Italy with two Italian women; immigrating to Fort Ontario in Oswego, New York in July 1944; attending junior high school; moving to New York City after the war ended; attending university and becoming a math teacher; getting married three times and having one son; and her religious feelings.

    Oral history interview with Alice Eberstarkova Masters

    Oral History

    Alice Eberstarkova Masters, born in Trstená, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia) in 1925, describes her youth; her experiences with antisemitism before the war; immigrating to England in 1939 on a Kindertransport; working as a secretary for the Czech government-in-exile in London during the war; following the BBC broadcasts of the war’s progress; the end of the war and discovering that her parents had died in Auschwitz; her reflections on the Nuremberg Trials; participating in Zionist and Jewish organizations while in England; immigrating to the United States in March 1948; working for the International Monetary Fund; losing her religious faith; getting married and starting a family after the war; and telling her children and grandchildren about her experiences during the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Martin Weiss

    Oral History

    Martin Weiss, born in Polana, Czechoslovakia (possibly present day Veľká Poľana, Slovakia) on January 28, 1929, describes his post-war experiences living in Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic with his sister; receiving papers to immigrate to the United States in 1946 and living with a distant cousin; working at a butcher’s shop, so he could support himself; opening his own meat store later in life; eventually deciding to volunteer at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum; and not participating much in his faith anymore.

    Oral history interview with Leonard Gordon

    Oral History

    Leonard Gordon, born on June 8, 1925 in Tilsit, Germany (Sovetsk, Russia), describes growing up in Siauliai, Lithuania; his family; attending Jewish grade school and high school; the German invasion of Lithuania in 1941; trying to escape to Russia but instead having to return home and go into the Siauliai ghetto; his family’s transport to Stutthof in 1944; being transported with his father and brother to Dachau, where they worked at Mühldorf; building the German underground airport, Messerschmitt; his father’s proposal that the three of them commit suicide; hearing about the invasion of Normandy; the liberation of Dachau in May 1945; staying in a displaced persons camp in Feldafing and planning to move to Israel; traveling to Italy and studying to be a radio technician; immigrating to the United States; becoming an electrical engineer and serving in the United States Navy; and rediscovering religion after the death of his wife.

    Oral history interview with Fritz Gluckstein

    Oral History

    Fritz Gluckstein, born January 24, 1927 in Berlin, Germany, describes the end of the war in Berlin; the food and housing shortages; cleaning up rubble from bombings with his father; the difficulties of re-starting his education after the war; immigrating to the United States in January 1948 and settling in the Minneapolis and St. Paul area; becoming a veterinarian; and volunteering for the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Brigitte Freidin

    Oral History

    Brigitte Freidin, born in Augsburg, Germany on June 3, 1930, describes her family and childhood; her memories of Kristallnacht; her father being arrested and sent to Dachau after Kristallnacht; her father’s release and her parents’ decision to try to immigrate to the United States; traveling to England while waiting for permission to go to the U.S.; immigrating to the U.S. in 1941; staying with relatives who were taking in refugees in Washington, DC; losing touch with much of her family left in Europe and then discovering that many had died; participating in American student clubs during the war; working as a salesgirl when she was fourteen years old to help support her family; getting married and starting a family; and speaking about her personal experiences during the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Eva Kristine Belfoure

    Oral History

    Eva Kristine Belfoure, born on October 1, 1924 in Kraków, Poland, describes growing up in a Roman Catholic home; having many Orthodox Jewish friends in her childhood; teaching Catholic prayers to an elderly Jewish lady who was hidden in her home during the war; exchanging goods and delivering messages in the ghetto; being arrested in January 1942 and being taken to the Nordhausen concentration camp, where she worked in various labor camps; her deportation to the Rathsfeld firm, where she worked as a kitchen aide and remained until liberation; doing translation work in a field hospital in Nordhausen after the war; going to the displaced persons camps in Dora, Heilbronn, and Darmstadt; attending the university in Frankfurt after receiving aid from the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Agency; immigrating to the United States in June 1950 and marrying a sailor in 1953; teaching languages in Baltimore County for twenty-five years; and translating for the Red Cross and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with George Hill Leonard

    Oral History

    George Leonard, a concentration camp liberator born on December 24, 1921 in Malden, Massachusetts, describes his childhood; his training in Alabama and California before he and his unit went to England; becoming the company runner, staying close to the captain and lieutenants; translating codes and delivering messages while at war; his memories of the fights at the Siegfried Line; receiving the Bronze Star after being wounded; traveling through parts of Germany along the Czech border and getting ordered to the Mauthausen concentration camp in Austria; helping to give the victims a proper burial; staying in the Mauthausen area for about six weeks until he went to Spital am Pyhrn, Austria in late July; leaving for America on December 15, 1945; getting married; and teaching at Harvard University after the war.

    Oral history interview with Kurt Roberg

    Oral History

    Kurt Roberg, born May 16, 1924 in Celle, Germany, discusses his childhood; attending a German school where he was the only Jewish student; his father Victor Roberg’s profession as a merchant for the firm Gebrüder Freidberg; his family’s religious practices; Kristallnacht; antisemitism in his hometown; details of German politics of the time; the boycott of Jewish businesses on April 1, 1933; how a retired teacher, Hal Lotheim, taught local Jewish students; the Hitler Youth in his community; his Bar Mitzvah; how his brother, Harry, immigrated in 1936 to Holland, the Netherlands to live with their maternal uncle, Wilhelm Marx; how his father had to close his business in 1937; his mother’s 1938 trip to Hamburg, Germany to visit the American consulate; how his father was sent to Oranienburg after Kristallnacht; his father’s release and experiences in Oranienburg; his journey to Holland to join his brother and uncle; how his mother and father used American visa applications to travel to Holland; how his mother, father, and brother immigrated to the United States from Holland in 1940; German attacks on Rotterdam, the Netherlands; being interned in Holland for his status as a German citizen; being sent out of Rotterdam to Gouda, the Netherlands; how a woman organized transports of children from Holland and Belgium to reunite with their parents; receiving his American visa in January 1941; leaving Holland in March 1941; traveling from Germany to Spain and then to Lisbon, Portugal by train with other children; traveling by American ship from Lisbon, Portugal to the United States; being held on Ellis Island for a month because of visa complications; living in New Rochelle, New York with his family; learning about Pearl Harbor; how he and his brother joined the army in 1943; experiencing antisemitism in the army; his experience in the Pacific during World War II; and his life with his family after the war.

    Oral history interview with Alfred Schnog

    Oral History

    Alfred Schnog, born January 25, 1931, discusses his childhood in Cologne, Germany; growing up in a relatively secular Jewish family on Universität Straße; his relationship with his grandparents who lived in Deutz, a suburb of Cologne; seeing Nazi parades and looking on with interest but feeling unwelcome; being harassed by Nazi Youth on his way home from school with his twin brother, Norbert; seeing signs in businesses barring Jews and learning that few business owners enforced this policy; spending Passover in a Catholic hospital after being injured in a car wreck and being provided with kosher food by the nuns; watching his father throw pieces of a gun into the Rhine when guns were banned for Jews; his father’s metal trade business being taken over by non-Jews; hearing about concentration camps but believing they would primarily affect immigrants (particularly Poles) and seeing Polish children taken out of his classes by the Gestapo; his parents’ search for a way out of Germany and eventual escape to the Netherlands in the summer of 1938; his family’s return to Germany in November 1938 to retrieve belongings; witnessing Kristallnacht from an upper-floor window of the Dome Hotel; his family being taken to jail as they tried to return to the Netherlands after the German borders were sealed, but eventually being allowed to go; attending Jewish school in Amsterdam and learning Dutch; applying to move to the United States and first going by plane to England in Jan 1940, then by ship (the Britannic) from Liverpool to New York City in April 1940; attending school in the United States; speaking Dutch with his brother because they did not want to be associated with Germans; experiencing discrimination in school when his third grade teacher admonished him and his brother for wearing an American flag pin on a holiday when they were not born in America; having his Bar Mitzvah and attending Hebrew school at the synagogue in Regal Park; experiencing antisemitism as his family vacationed in the Adirondacks, finding many signs restricting Jews from staying at hotels; learning that his grandparents had been killed in a concentration camp; graduating from Forest Hill High School and then receiving a degree in engineering from Cornell; going to Korea in 1954 to serve two years in the U.S. Army; starting and running a company; learning that a pair of his father’s cufflinks were given to his father in recognition of his Bar Mitzvah by Claus von Stauffenberg, a German officer who later led an assassination attempt against Hitler; his reflections on the way those who did not experience the Holocaust and WWII view it; his children’s knowledge of his and his parents’ experiences and how it has affected them; and his thoughts on Israel.

    Oral history interview with Fred Taucher

    Oral History

    Fred Taucher, born on January 29, 1933 in Berlin, Germany, describes his half-brother’s suicide to avoid Nazi concentration camps; the destruction of his father’s store during Kristallnacht; moving to a ghetto in 1938; his father’s inability to leave Germany despite his United State’s citizenship; his family’s relationship with a high ranking Nazi member; his father going into slave labor and then being sent to Auschwitz in 1943; his family’s escape from arrest; living in subway stations to avoid Allied bombings; getting arrested, tortured, and sent to Dachau in April 1945; escaping from the Nazis with some Russian soldiers; his mother’s death during a crossfire between the Germans and the Russians; his 1946 Bar Mitzvah in Berlin; life in Berlin after the Holocaust; his 1946 arrival in America; his decision to join the U.S. Army; his experiences trying to obtain United States citizenship; his life in America as a citizen and his activism in Holocaust survivor networks.

    Oral history interview with Helen Goldkind

    Oral History

    Helen Goldkind, born in Czechoslovakia (near Volosyanka, Ukraine) on July 9, 1928, describes her early childhood; experiencing antisemitism as a child; her recollections of the Nazi occupation of her town in 1944; her deportation to Auschwitz; how her grandfather was beaten to death for not relinquishing a Torah scroll; being sent to work at a munitions factory in Germany; being with her sister when they were liberated by British troops in 1945; spending time in the Bergen-Belsen displaced persons camp to recover; receiving help from the Swedish Red Cross and traveling to Sweden to recover; immigrating to the United States in 1946 with her sister; finding a job as a secretary in New York City; getting married and moving to Baltimore; the death of her sister and raising her children; and her reflections on the current state of the world.

    Oral history interview with Inge Katzenstein

    Oral History

    Inge Katzenstein (née Berg), born March 27, 1929 in Cologne, Germany, describes her family; having to move in with some of her extended family in Cologne after Kristallnacht; attempting to illegally cross into Holland; getting into Holland but immediately being captured and imprisoned; immigrating to Kenya but not being able to leave their home their without permission; attending stenography school to become a secretary; immigrating to the United States in 1951 and settling in Vineland, New Jersey; getting married and raising her children as Orthodox Jews; and returning to Germany twice and getting treated well.

    Oral history interview with Werner Katzenstein

    Oral History

    Werner Katzenstein, born in Wallensen, Germany on April 29, 1922, describes his childhood; having to leave school in 1933 after Hitler came to power in 1933; his father going to prison because he was Jewish but getting released after about a week; his father being forced to close down his business; buying property in Holland and immigrating there in 1937; immigrating to the United States in 1939 and settling in Somerville, New Jersey; being considered an enemy alien; registering for the draft and being called to service in March 1944; being sent for basic training to Camp Blanding in Florida; being classified for intelligence and reconnaissance work; joining the 100th Infantry Division in Fort Bragg, North Carolina; his deployment to Europe; going through southern France and the Vosges Mountains; and getting wounded in combat; returning to his platoon in January 1945 and going through Germany; being in combat in Heidelberg; working for the military government; visiting family who had been in Theresienstadt; returning for New Jersey on April 30,1946; and getting married and settling in Washington, D.C.

    Oral history interview with Fred Goldman

    Oral History

    Fred Goldman, born in Fürth, Germany on September 6, 1915, describes his childhood; his memories of Hitler coming to power; finishing high school and moving to Berlin to train to be a cantor and teacher at a Jewish Teacher’s College; returning to Fürth after three years and moving back in with his mother and sister; immigrating to the United States in January 1939 because a distant cousin vouched for him; arriving in the U.S. with twelve dollars and taking a job as a busboy at a department store in New York; marrying Ruth Schuster, a Jewish women also from Fürth; working in a uniform factory until he was drafted into the army in March 1943; becoming a member of the medical corps but then being transferred into the military intelligence unit when the army learned he was fluent in German; going to Camp Ritchie in Maryland; interrogating prisoners in Europe; staying with the army until March 1946, when he returned to the United States and became a diamond setter; and settling in Silver Spring, Maryland after the war.

    Oral history interview with Paulette Stessin

    Oral History

    Paulette Stessin, born in Metz, France, discusses her family and childhood in France; her parents, who sold clothing in the market; keeping kosher; her understanding of events in Germany in 1938 when she was 17 or 18; her family’s move to Angouleme, France where they thought they would be safe; daily life in Angouleme; her work as a hairdresser in Brive la Gaillarde, France, where there was one Jewish family; being arrested near Brive in April 1944; being transferred to Drancy and then to Auschwitz-Birkenau; her memories of Auschwitz; working on a road hauling stones; “Pitchipoi,” a term referring to the imaginary place they would be sent to and used by the prisoners in Drancy; the addition of a chemical to the women’s soup to suppress their menstrual cycles, which did not work on her; deciding to join her “camp sister”, a Dutch woman in another barrack, who was being deported; arriving at Bergen-Belsen; her memories of the camp; being liberated in April 1945; traveling to Paris; her reintegration at the Hotel Lutetia; and her decision to return to Angouleme.

    Oral history interview with Margitta Cooper

    Oral History

    Margitta Cooper, born on June 10, 1929 in Speyer, Germany, describes her family and childhood; her relationships with her non-Jewish friends; her memories of Kristallnacht; her father being arrested and sent to Dachau after Kristallnacht; her family’s arrest in 1940 and being taken to the Gurs concentration camp; gathering with about 20 other children and being told they were to be sent to the United States; separating from her parents and seeing them for the last time; spending time in a small French town before her immigration; finally travelling to the United States by boat in 1941; taking a train to Baltimore, MD to recover with the other immigrant children; meeting an uncle in New York City; finding out about the fate of her family; settling into life in Baltimore and receiving a job at the Johns Hopkins hospital; and her reflections on what the world knew about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Erika Eckstut

    Oral History

    Erica Eckstut, born June 12, 1928 in Znojmo, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), describes her family; staying with her sister and brother-in-law at the end of the war; marrying a member of the Czech Army, Robert Kauder, on August 28, 1945; living in Freiwaldau (Jeseník), Czech Republic; how her husband was the big boss (Velitel) in the city, removing Germans from the Sudetenland area; moving to Prague, Czech Republic; having two children over the next few years; how her husband testified at the Nuremberg Trials; the death of her husband in 1957; immigrating to the United States; finally arriving in the United States with her children on April 11, 1960 and being greeted by a swarm of reporters because she was among the first to be allowed to leave Communist Czechoslovakia; attending technology school; living with her sister, her sister’s husband, and their children for a year before getting her own apartment; meeting her current husband in 1962; her diagnosis of lung cancer in 1989; participating in a cancer research study and being one of two survivors of the seventy-five person study; and volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Tole Johannes Madna

    Oral History

    Tolé Johannes Hendricus Madna, born June 8, 1931 in The Hague, the Netherlands, describes his Indonesian father and his Dutch Protestant mother; living in Holland during the war; the divorce of his parents in 1936; living with his father and a nanny; hiding the infant son, Alfred Munzer, of family friends; the child staying with his family for three and a half years and calling him Bobby; moving to Belgium after the war; and immigrating to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Henri Dupuy

    Oral History

    Henri Dupuy, born June 5, 1920 in Thiviers, France and designated Righteous Among Nations, discusses his anger at the French government and Germany; his decision to join the Resistance; Constantin, nom de guerre Jambard, leader of the Armée Secrète (AS) who formed the Maquis in 1942 in Perigueux, France; how his mother, Helene, hid Maquis members in her home and procured ration cards; joining the police to avoid the draft; guarding the Perigueux Gestapo headquarters and stealing letters stamped “Dordogne,” denouncing French citizens; the November 10, 1943 Maquis attack in Perigueux and roundup and deportation of 350 Jews to Auschwitz; the arrest of the Gruska family and escape of their children; how his mother placed two Gruska sons with rural families and the daughter in a convent; how his mother secured forged identity papers with the complicity of Secretary-General Lafont, joining the Messignac Maquis; Maquis attacks from the woods; the supply of small arms by the Riberac police and by parachute drops; how the Maquis were denounced and attacked by Germans; hiding in Coursac, Dordogne, France and joining the Roland Maquis; a Maquis attack on the Neuvic-Bordeaux train carrying French francs to Germany in July or August 1944; and how the Maquis offloaded the francs in a truck to Saint-Alvere, a resistance center in the Dordogne, to support Maquis families and resistance activities.

    Oral history interview with Halina Peabody

    Oral History

    Halina Peabody (née Halina Janna Litman), born in Kraków, Poland on December 12, 1932, describes her childhood; taking on a false identity (Halina Litinska) during the war and pretending to be Catholic; hiding in Jaroslaw with her mother and younger sister; being injured on the day of liberation by a hand grenade; being liberated by the Russian Army; living in group homes with her sister after the war; traveling to Italy with her family and staying at a displaced persons camp; traveling to England and then going to Israel in 1957; taking a job at the American embassy in Tel Aviv; marrying a Bulgarian Jew who worked for the U.S. Information Agency; leaving Israel in 1968 with her husband and five year old son; immigrating to Palo Alto, California, where her husband could get a job at the Hoover Institute; moving to Washington, D.C., where Halina’s husband got a job working for “The Voice of America”; getting a divorce from her husband in 1972 and then marrying Richard Peabody; volunteering at the Holocaust Museum; and getting involved with survivor groups such as the Association of Child Survivors.

    Oral history interview with Marcel Bercau

    Oral History

    Marcel Bercau, born October 17, 1920 in Paris, France, describes his Romanian family; restrictions placed on Jews during German occupation; his deportation to Drancy in 1941; working in a locksmith's workshop and remaining in Drancy with his father and brother for a year before they were deported; going to Auschwitz, where he worked as an earth-worker and then as a bricklayer; working in the schlosser-electriker division, which allowed him to find a little bit of extra food; the evacuation of Auschwitz on January 17, 1945; going on a death march with 60,000 other prisoners and traveling through the snow and the cold with no food; arriving in Gleiwitz, Germany (Gliwice, Poland), where they were put in open cattle cars and transported to Oranienburg; how while they passed through Prague, Czech Republic people threw them bread and water containers; how four out of five people died during the transport; the German abandonment of Landsberg, where he was being held; being rescued and taken to Augsburg, where there was a repatriation camp; and returning to Paris to start a family.

    Oral history interview with Rolph Hammel

    Oral History

    Rolph Hammel, born on September 11, 1912, in Karlsruhe, Germany, describes his family; his involvement with a Zionist youth movement; being forced to do military service in 1933 in Dijon; getting scarlet fever; moving to Strasbourg, France and working in a hardware store before starting his own faucet and fixtures business in 1937; being allowed to remain in France because he had inherited citizenship from his mother who was French; working in the DCA during the war; helping to save 70 Jews in Périgueux, France; going to the ORT school; and his reflections on the treatment of Jews during the war.

    Oral history interview with Norbert V. Hilsberg

    Oral History

    Norbert Hilsberg, born on September 3, 1914 in Vienna, Austria, describes his family; graduating college and serving in the Austrian military for three months; starting the forms to immigrate to the United States after the Anschluss; his parents’ immigration to Cuba, where they stayed until April 1941, when they attained visas for the United States; receiving his visa in June 1938 and traveling to the United States; living with his uncle in Philadelphia, PA when he arrived; learning about the invasion of Poland; working in the advertising department of the Litz department store in Philadelphia; volunteering for the US Army in February 1941; getting sent to an engineering camp, where he made maps; the attachment of his outfit to the general headquarters in DC; being forced to remain in the US when his unit went abroad because he was not yet eligible for his American citizenship; receiving his citizenship in April 1943 and working on plans for the invasion of southern France and Austria; living in North Africa for nearly a year; being sent to Hawaii; leaving the army in 1945; accepting a job with the war department; and settling in Washington, DC with his family.

    Oral history interview with Alfred Munzer

    Oral History

    Alfred Munzer, born in The Hague, Netherlands on November 23, 1941, describes his family; how his parents debated over having him circumcised; his family going into hiding in May 1942; his father being admitted into a psychiatric hospital and his mother working at the psychiatric hospital as a nurse’s aide; his two older sisters being taken in by a Catholic family; going into hiding with a family friend and neighbor, Tolé Madna; how he played in the backyard and was called Bobby; his parents being sent to a concentration camp on December 26, 1942; his mother surviving the war, working first as a seamstress and later as an electrician; how his father died soon after liberation; the death of his sisters in Auschwitz; immigrating to Brussels, Belgium in 1952 and to the United States in 1958 with his mother; settling in New York where he attended Brooklyn College; going on to attend medical school at the State University of New York, Downstate Medical Center in Brooklyn; becoming a lung specialist and interning at several well known-hospitals before doing military service at Andrews Air Force base in Washington, D.C.; and settling in D.C. with his partner Joel Wind.

    Oral history interview with Maria Mandel

    Oral History

    Maria Myriam Mandel, born 1938 in Czerwinsk, Poland, discusses the assembly of the town's citizens in a square and their deportation; her family's escape through a bakery door; hiding from the Gestapo in granaries, cemeteries, and the woods; her parents’ execution by the Gestapo in 1942; her placement by her parents in a neighbor's home from 1942 to 1947; her new name, Katia Gortak; the kindness of her foster mother and brother; her Catholic education; her antisemitic feelings; the painful loss of her brother and sister who were placed in other families and abandoned; the arrival of the Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) at the end of the war; reuniting with her uncles in America and France; her shock at learning she was Jewish; her transfer to a Jewish orphanage in Czerwinsk, where she received a Jewish education; her recollections of antisemitism at the war's end; her life in the orphanage from 1947 to 1949; visits by her foster mother; her bitterness when visits ceased; how the JDC changed her birth date from 1938 to 1937 to allow her to travel alone from Poland to France; her arrival in Paris, France; her refusal to join her uncle in America; and her life in Perigueux, France with her paternal uncle and his family.

    Oral history interview with Yvonne Mignot de Royere

    Oral History

    Yvonne Mignot de Royere (née Roux), born in Clermont d’Excideuil, France on February, 22, 1925, describes how she and her father, Joseph Roux, saved 21 Jews during World War II; the evacuation of Jews in Strasbourg in 1939; working with her father, who was the mayor; taking in French Jewish refugees; how her work as a municipal clerk gave her access to forms and papers, which she used to provide the Jews with forged identity papers and ration cards; hiding Jews in the village rectory; one of the Jewish women giving birth to her daughter, Arlette Veil, in 1943; she and her father saving several families (last names: Robertso, Schwab, Wertz, and Veil); how three of the families were hidden in the caretaker’s house at the Chateau du Noyer and she helped them secure food; how she occasionally left the mayor’s office unlocked so that the families could secure additional ration cards; living in Excideuil from 1942 to 1944, after which the Jews returned to Alsace to rebuild their lives; staying in touch with the people she helped; and being honored with her father by Yad Vashem as Righteous Among Nations in 1982.

    Oral history interview with Susan Berlin

    Oral History

    Susan Berlin (née Suzanna Reichman), born on June 22, 1926 in Rožňava, Czechoslovakia (present day Slovakia), describes her family; her childhood in Rožňava; her memories of the rise of Nazi power; immigrating to the United States on August 3, 1939; settling in New York City, where she went to Julia Richmond High School; graduating in 1942 and attending Brooklyn College for her undergraduate degree and the University of Pennsylvania for her master’s degree; graduating in 1947 and moving to Washington D.C., where she got a job in the Army Intelligence Map Service as an Army Intelligence Research Analyst; marrying in 1950 and having three daughters; retiring from the Army Intelligence Map Service to raise her daughters; becoming an art teacher when her children got older; and volunteering at the Holocaust Memorial Museum in the Education Department.

    Oral history interview with John Bucur

    Oral History

    John Bucur, born in Youngstown, Ohio on March 5, 1925, describes his childhood; his Romanian-American parents; the multiracial community he grew up in; graduating high school in 1943 as the valedictorian of his class and receiving a scholarship to Ohio University; enlisting in the Army and being sent to Fort Sill, where he received training to be in Battery B of the 17th Observation Battalion; his first assignment watching a ship off the shore of Omaha Beach in France on D-Day; his unit’s move through England, France, and Germany and then going on a tour of Buchenwald at the end of the war; taking college courses at an American School in Biarritz, France after the war; returning home on December 7, 1945 and being discharged from the army; finishing his degree at Ohio University and graduating in 1948; going on to medical school and becoming a neurosurgeon; having five children with two wives; and moving to Arlington, Virginia to found Fairfax Hospital, Northern Virginia Doctor’s Hospital, and the National Orthopedic Hospital.

    Oral history interview with Lore Schneider

    Oral History

    Lore Schneider (née Heti Lore Koppel), born on October 10, 1924 in Bochum, Germany, describes her family; seeing the Nazi youth in her neighborhood; observing the Nazi parades from her home on the main street; immigrating to the United States in June 1934; settling in Washington, D.C. and attending public school; obtaining U.S. citizenship in 1939, five years after her family’s arrival; attending college at night and working as a stenographer at the Interior Department during the war; and marrying in 1946 and having three children.

    Oral history interview with Frank Liebermann

    Oral History

    Frank Nathan Liebermann (né Franz Natan Liebermann), born in Gleiwitz (Gliwice), Poland on January 19, 1929, describes his family; celebrating Jewish holidays; immigrating to the United States in October 1938 and moving to Dayton, Ohio, where his father set up his medical practice; his family’s involvement in the Jewish community and helping many European Jews to immigrate to the United States; attending Western Reserve University; meeting his wife during his sophomore year and marrying her soon after he graduated; working for a textile converting firm for many years before retiring and moving to Washington, D.C., where his two daughters had already settled; finding a job at a travel firm; and beginning to volunteer at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum after September 11th, 2001.

    Oral history interview with Marianne Liebermann

    Oral History

    Marianne Liebermann, born in Vienna, Austria on October 29, 1929, describes her family and childhood; her education; her father searching for ways to leave Vienna and immigrating to the United States after the Anschluss; her father’s efforts to convince a gentile American family, with whom he had previously done business, to vouch for his family; boarding a train to Cherbourg, France in September 1938 and transferring to the Europa ship, which took them to the U.S.; arriving in New York on October 3, 1938 and living there when the war broke out in 1939; graduating from Barnard University and later going on to get her master’s degree at Adelphi University; marrying Frank Liebermann on November 23, 1950; settling down in Great Neck, New York and having three children; becoming a teacher and spending many years teaching English as a second language; and settling in Maryland.

    Oral history interview with Thea S. Rips

    Oral History

    Thea S. Rips, born in Trieste, Italy on February 24, 1922, describes her childhood; her family moving to Rijeka, Croatia when she was five years old; growing up in a Catholic family but having many Jewish friends; witnessing the persecution of nearby Jewish families; aiding several families in their attempts to escape Italy; wanting to become a doctor and working in a shipyard infirmary in Rijeka; getting a job working on the Marshall Plan after the war in Rome, Italy; being offered a chance to move to the United States and work as an interpreter in 1955; meeting her husband, who she was engaged to for eighteen years before they married in February 1976; going to the United States and living in New York; moving to Washington, D.C.; and the death of her husband in September of 1994.

    Oral history interview with Andrew Glass

    Oral History

    Andrew (né Andrej) James Glass, born November 30, 1935 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses his early childhood; spending time in his wealthy grandfather's house because of his mother's illness; his grandfather, Jacob, repatriating millions of dollars which had been deposited in Switzerland, New York, and London, back into zlotys in Poland because of a 1939 government decree; hearing planes and bombs exploding in September 1939; his father being forced to clear rubble and fill sandbags; supplying gas to a gentile taxi driver and two families driving east on September 13; going by horse and cart and then by train and on foot to Vilnius, Lithuania; his father getting picked up by a Lithuanian patrol but being released when he agreed with them that President Roosevelt was Jewish; his family receiving three Japanese visas from Chiune Sugihara, the Japanese Consul; paying 600 dollars to get Soviet transit visas; traveling on the Trans-Siberian Railway and arriving in Japan in December 1940; getting three residence visas to the Dominican Republic and a one week transit visa from the American Consul in Tokyo, Japan; sailing on the Kama Kumakara in April 1941 to San Francisco, CA; taking the train to New York, NY and staying there until 1943; immigrating to Canada; re-entering the U.S. under the Polish quota; his father working in a defense plant and his mother working as a seamstress in New York; how he determined to not feel different; working for the New York Herald Tribune, the Washington Post, Senators Javits and Percy, and Cox newspapers from 1974 to 2001; becoming a Fellow at Harvard and the managing editor of The Hill newspaper; and feeling that he is living on borrowed time, that life is precious, and that there is a randomness to who survives.

    Oral history interview with Renate Fischer Chernoff

    Oral History

    Renate Fischer Chernoff, born on June 25, 1929 in Breslau, Germany (Wrocław, Poland), describes her early childhood; moving to Racibórz, Poland with her family in 1934; being sent to Berlin, Germany to stay with her grandmother in 1937; her family choosing to immigrate to Canada since her father was a physician; arriving in 1938 and settling in Montreal; moving to New Brunswick; her parents adopting Saul Silvershein, a sixteen year old Polish boy from a displaced persons camp; attending college at Dalhousie University; meeting her husband while in graduate school at the University of Chicago; marrying in New Brunswick in 1953 and moving to Saint Louis, MO where her husband finished his residency and their first child was born; moving to Durham, NC, where they had two more children; and settling in the Washington, DC area in 1980.

    Oral history interview with Eli Dortort

    Oral History

    Eli Dortort (né Klemfner), born on August 30, 1920 in Zdachov, Galicia, Poland, describes his family and childhood; escaping his hometown a few hours before the Germans invaded; traveling with some Russian soldiers to Kiev, Ukraine and then to Starobielsk (Starobil's'k), Ukraine, where he volunteered for the Polish Army; his unit being sent to Israel, where he deserted and worked in a kibbutz; staying in the kibbutz for a year before he joined the British Army and was sent to Italy; later being stationed in Teheran, Iran and Egypt; returning to Israel after the war and fighting in the War of Independence; staying in Israel until the late 1950s, when he immigrated to the United States; and settling in New York City, where he met his wife and had a daughter.

    Oral history interview with Hilda Seftor

    Oral History

    Hilda Seftor (née Cohen), born in Edinburgh, Scotland on August 21, 1923, describes her family and childhood; finding out about the Nazi invasion of Poland; helping her local Jewish community and finding homes for thirty-five Jewish refugee children; her parents founding the Whittingehame Farm School; teaching the school’s Jewish children how to farm and giving them a traditional education; attending the Edinburgh College of Domestic Science and graduating with a degree in household and institutional management in 1943; working in the Edinburgh school system and later at a wartime nursery preparing meals for children; marrying after the war and immigrating to the United States; having four sons; moving to Washington, DC in 1994; and volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Felix Nicinski

    Oral History

    Felix Nicinski (né Fievish Nicinski), born December 7, 1925 in Lochów, Poland near Lódź, Poland, discusses his early childhood; moving in to the fenced-in ghetto in early 1940; how the Germans bombed their city before entering it; being taken to a work camp in Lienzingen (Mühlacker, Germany) in late 1940 with the other 14 to 18 year old boys to dig ditches; slipping away on a march in the summer of 1941 to work and escape to the fenced-in ghetto in Kalisz, Poland; receiving the false identity of an escaped 27 year old; Kalisz Jews being sent to the Lódź ghetto in 1941; being forced to wear the yellow star and beaten by the German guards; working at an ammunitions plants in Skarżysko-Kamienna for 10 months in 1942; being sent to Dora in 1943 and then to Buchenwald in 1944 for six months; his transfer to Bergen-Belsen in 1944; being liberated by the British on April 15, 1945; living in Bamberg, Germany between 1945 to 1948 and learning how to be a barber; immigrating to Australia in 1948 and living there for ten years; immigrating to the United States in 1958; and marrying another survivor of Bergen-Belsen.

    Oral history interview with David Brombart

    Oral History

    David Brombart, born on August 3, 1933 in Brussels, Belgium, discusses his childhood; the German invasion in May 1940 and being able to attend school until mid-1941; the deportation of his sister, Sarah, and his mother in August 1942; running away from a boarding school in Ikla (possibly Uccle in Brussels) and his father placing him in the home of business clients; going into hiding in Hornu, Belgium but visiting his father, who was in hiding in another city; his liberation in September 1944 and returning to Brussels with his father; finding out that his grandfather was a member of the Jewish Committee which made up lists for the Germans; returning to school at age 11 and learning how to write; serving in the Belgian Army from 1952 to 1954 and becoming the head of the Socialist Democratic Youth until 1958; having a full time job with the Young Socialist Guard and attending international conferences as the Labor Secretary from 1958 to 1964; living in Paris, France from 1958 to 1959; getting married in 1961; being offered a job to direct the African Labor Institute of the American organization AFL-CIO; moving to New York and advising labor movements in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia; becoming Deputy Director of the International Department of the AFL-CIO under Lane Kirkland; and being honored for his international labor work by the governments of Dahomey, Togo, and Senegal.

    Oral history interview with Gunter Haimann

    Oral History

    Gunter Haimann, born on January 26, 1922 in Koblenz, Germany, describes his childhood and family; his parents deciding that it was time to leave Germany in the beginning of 1937, when Jewish children were banned from public schools; immigrating to the United States and living with his aunt in Queens, New York; attending high school and night school to learn English; graduating in June 1941 and finding a job at an auto shop; his draft into the army at the beginning of the war and being trained as an interrogator; teaching interrogating techniques at Camp Ritchie in Maryland; his transfer into the 101st Airborne; going to England and jumping on D-Day and landing in Carentan, France; serving with the 101st for the remainder of the war; receiving a Purple Heart after being wounded in Bastogne, Belgium; not taking religion in to account while he was fighting; jumping onto Holland on Rosh Hashonah in 1944; going into Düsseldorf, Germany; finding Hitler’s stationary and using it to write letters; going to Austria and finding Mr. and Mrs. Goering and speaking with Mrs. Goering; seeing Holocaust survivors walking home; returning to the United States and starting a luncheonette business; and meeting his wife and having three children.

    Oral history interview with Alfred Lakritz

    Oral History

    Alfred Julian Lakritz, born on June 1, 1934 in Kiel, Germany, describes his family; narrowly escaping deportation to Poland in 1939 and moving to Antwerp, Belgium and then Marmande, France with his family; experiencing antisemitism from his peers in Marmande; how his father was arrested; speaking with the men who arrested his father many years later, and their regret; being sent with his brother to a Jewish summer camp in Creuse, France in July 1942; going into hiding in various safe houses for two and a half years after leaving the camp; ending up at a convent in Lourdes, France, where they met a Jewish French woman who took them in for the remainder of the war; being placed in a Catholic home in Tarbes with his brother after the war; reuniting with their mother in Marmande and applying for visas to the United States; immigrating to the United States in 1950 and settling in Oakland, CA; attending the University of California at Berkeley; completing his law degree; moving to Los Angeles, CA with his wife, whom he had met in law school; and raising a family.

    Oral history interview with Rita Rubinstein

    Oral History

    Rita Rubinstein (née Frieda Rifka Lifschitz), born on December 12, 1936 in Romania, describes her family and early childhood; her father’s draft into the Russian Army; going into hiding in Transnistria, Ukraine in September 1941; her liberation by Russian troops in April 1944; returning to their home in Romania and discovering that her father had died during the war; attending school for the first time and learning Russian and Ukrainian; traveling to Munich, Germany and posing as a Greek refugee; living in the Feldafing displaced persons camp for some time; developing tuberculosis in 1947 and having to go to a sanitarium in Augsburg, Germany; immigrating to the United States with her mother in September 1949 and settling in New York, NY; and getting married in 1959 and starting a family.

    Oral history interview with Anita Etzyon

    Oral History

    Anita Etzyon, born on October 4, 1941 in Boryslav, Poland (present day Ukraine), describes her family and childhood; being one year old when her mother died from tuberculosis; having few direct memories of the war but being told about her family’s life during that time; being taken away to live with a Christian family and getting baptized to better fit into her surroundings; returning to live with her father, who had remarried, after the war; living in a Jewish neighborhood and attending a Jewish school; moving to various cities around Poland with her father and step-mother; being the only Jew in her school in Swidnica, Poland; adjusting to life as a Jew after she had spent four years as a Christian; immigrating to Israel in 1951; learning Hebrew and adjusting to life in Israel; getting married to avoid serving in the Israeli Army; having a daughter; immigrating to the United States with her husband and daughter 1963; settling in Washington, DC and working for a Jewish Day School; and her reflections on being a Jew in the modern world.

    Oral history interview with Melvin Galun

    Oral History

    Melvin Galun, born on May 10, 1940 in Kowal, Poland, describes his parents’ participation in the Zionist movement; his mother’s stories about Jews being sent away to the camps; going into hiding in the nearby forests; his memory of his family’s liberation by Russian troops; staying in several German displaced persons camps after the war; his early education in the displaced persons camps; participating in Zionist youth movements in the camps; immigrating to the United States in November 1949; his studies in the United States at a Yeshiva school; traveling to Israel after graduating school and working in a kibbutz for a year; and getting married in 1963 and starting a family.

    Oral history interview with Magdalena Farkas Berkovics

    Oral History

    Magdalena Farkas Berkovics, born on July 15, 1919 in Cluj, Romania, discusses her childhood, schooling and musical training in a conservatory; experiencing low level antisemitism; getting married in 1939; living in her house in the Cluj ghetto with other women after the city’s Jewish men had been taken away for forced labor; conditions in the ghetto, including food scarcity and the black market; providing piano lessons to Christian children; being deported in June 1944; terrible conditions in the train car; her arrival at Auschwitz; being separated from her family except for one 25-year-old cousin; how her clothes were taken away and her hair removed; going to Stutthof in August 1944 and then digging ditches in Steinort (Sztynort, Poland), Elbing (Elbląg, Poland), and Groudentz; speaking about freedom with the other women and singing Hungarian songs; being liberated and traveling to Satu Mare, Romania, where Jewish volunteers helped her return to Cluj; how she found Christians living in her house and learned that she was the only survivor in her family; marrying, Zoltan Berkovics, in 1946; the birth of their son, Tiberius, who later changed his name to John Sylvanis because of antisemitism in Romania; how Communists nationalized her house and forced her to pay rent; teaching in the Romanian conservatory for 30 years; immigrating with her husband to the United States in the 1980s; and feeling very grateful for American liberty and democracy.

    Oral history interview with Sol Mackler

    Oral History

    Sol Mackler, born on January 15,1921 in Poland, discusses his childhood in a small village; visiting relatives in nearby Radom; being forced to live in a ghetto in 1939 with sixteen people in one house; wearing a yellow star; in late 1941 walking seven miles to Pionki labor camp, being given a striped uniform and the number 1058; working in a munitions factory, then laying railway tracks in a tunnel; escaping with four other prisoners to the forest and joining Polish Jewish partisans; being captured by Germans and being sent by train to Sachsenhausen; seeing his sister and her baby there; smuggling his one year old nephew into Pionki to the child’s father, a tailor who made Nazi uniforms; waiting for Russians at liberation; going back to his village and being severely beaten; living in Bad Nauheim displaced persons camp in Germany; working on the black market selling diamonds from Belgium; arriving in the United States in December 1949 after being sponsored by two Jewish Californian wine makers; moving to New York to work and getting married in 1956; working for his brother-in-law; and finding out his parents were executed in Treblinka.

    Oral history interview with Theresia Bauer

    Oral History

    Theresia Bauer discusses her involvement with the League of German Girls (Bund Deutscher Mädel), which paralleled the boys’ Hitler Youth (Hitler Jugend); the Soviet occupation of Austria, a time period in which she was constantly hiding from soldiers; and her husband's experience as a prisoner of war in Russia.

    Oral history interview with Carolina Taitz

    Oral History

    Carolina Taitz (née Lena Knoch), born on February 24, 1929 in Russia on a train, discusses her childhood in Viesite, Latvia; having friendly relations with schoolmates in her Latvian public school; how her father, a tree doctor, lost his business and the family house and was temporarily imprisoned as a capitalist when the Russian Communists occupied the town; experiencing a lot of antisemitism; seeing Jews being shot on the street when the Germans came in 1941; being forced to live in the ghetto in Riga, Latvia with five people to a room and little food; getting hit in the eye when a German soldier caught her with a cooked potato; being forced to work in a shoe polish factory from 5 AM to 5 PM; going on a forced march with 30,000 people guarded by German soldiers; seeing and hearing people being shot in a ditch in the Rumbula forest; walking with her mother, sister, and 200 other women to Termini prison; staying on the roof in the cold for two weeks in November 1942 and the birth of a baby, named Termina; going back to the ghetto; dressing as a boy going to work and escaping during a second Aktion when she was 14 years old; taking off her yellow star; being sheltered by a Russian Evangelist priest, Vladimir Michko, and his sister for two and a half years; living in their cellar; going back to Riga at liberation; her mother returning from Auschwitz but dying soon after; attending acting school; getting married and having a daughter; trying for 10 years to go to the United States, and finally getting a visa with the help of Eleanor Roosevelt; arriving in New York in March 1966; working at the New York City Opera for 19 years in charge of costumes, wigs, and makeup for the productions; being widowed twice and moving to Washington, DC in 2008; and still seeing her mother and little brother in her dreams and herself running away from German soldiers.

    Oral history interview with Helen Schwartz

    Oral History

    Helen Schwartz (b. Hela Kirschner), born in 1925, discusses living in the Łódź ghetto in Poland from 1939 to August 1944; working in a laundry in the ghetto; being taken with her family to Auschwitz concentration camp in 1944; being marched from Auschwitz to Stutthof; her liberation by the Russians near Gdansk, Poland; contracting typhus in an outbreak that hit a group of female survivors following liberation; returning to Łódź and reuniting with her sister; reuniting with her brother at the displaced persons camp in Ainring, Germany; immigrating in 1949 to Portland, Maine, where her husband worked in a clothing factory; opening a tailor’s shop in 1954; raising a family; volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum; and speaking at schools in Silver Spring, Maryland.

    Oral history interview with Irene Silver

    Oral History

    Irene Silver, born Irena Dynkewicz in Łódź, Poland on January 30, 1933, discusses raising her children in the Jewish tradition, being comfortable with friends who understand the Holocaust experience; her anger with people who ask why victims did not fight back during the Holocaust; being tolerant of strangers after having lived with strangers in the Warsaw Ghetto; her work as a social worker and how it was influenced by her wartime experiences; her sympathy with the civil rights movement; her membership in the Hidden Children group in New York where she feels a common ground; receiving Holocaust reparations which she used to help her children; her view that the world has not learned any lessons from the Holocaust; and her emotion at the opening of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, feeling that the rain at the opening ceremony was the heavens crying.

    Oral history interview with Herman Taube

    Oral History

    Herman Taube (né Herschel Taube), born February 2, 1918 in Łódź, Poland, discusses his family; being orphaned by age nine; living with grandparents and later moving to Piyotrkov; attending a yeshiva; being encouraged by a Polish doctor to become a medic; returning to his grandparents in Łódź in 1935 and seeing antisemitic incidents; writing poetry; belonging to a literary society and meeting the Jewish philosopher Martin Buber; working in a military hospital in Alexandrov (possibly Aleksandrów Łódźki, Poland), arranged by Father Jagla, a Catholic priest; joining the Polish Army in August 1939; serving in a medical group that marched to the Bug River where the Soviet Army ordered the group to go to Volodymyr-Volyns'kyĭ, Ukraine to get educated so as to lose their capitalist mentality; accompanying a wounded soldier to Poltawa (Poltava), Ukraine, where an Ukrainian militia man arranged for him to take a new name, Grigori Arionowicz Taube, and live with a Jewish family; going to Samarra (Koibashov or possibly Kuybyshev) and getting more medical training; being sent to Tyumen (Tiumen') in Siberia and working in hospitals and in gulags; in November 1941 going to Tashkent, Uzbekistan and then to Andizhan, Uzbekistan; working in a malaria clinic; leaving the clinic after reporting that people were stealing food from the hospital; going to Seratov, Russia to the Polish Army; being assigned to the Kotsk offensive in June 1944; being badly injured by a mine explosion while riding in a truck; recovering enough by December 1944 and going to Lublin, Poland to the Polish Army headquarters in Majdanek; being assigned to Platte and opening a Red Cross repatriation station where he treated people with typhus; going to Keslin in Bessarabia in June 1945 to acquire more medicine from a CIBA warehouse; meeting a young woman, Susan Strauss, a survivor from Germany and traveling together to Potsdam, Germany; staying in a displaced persons camp in Halle-Merseburg, Germany, where he opened a Red Cross station; meeting a young Auschwitz survivor, Henry Rothfogel; traveling with Susan back to Platte, and getting civilly married and later religiously married; traveling with Susan and Henry in the summer of 1946 to Berlin, Germany with help from the Bricha; adopting a two year old child survivor, Mark; having first child in the Zingenheim displaced persons camp in September 1946; arriving in the United Sates on April 18, 1947 and being interviewed at the pier by the Jewish Daily Forward; going to Baltimore, MD to join Susan's father; writing for the Jewish Daily Forward; traveling to New York, NY to edit a Histadrut yearbook; returning to Baltimore and helping Susan run a grocery store; working for various Jewish organizations; obtaining accreditation as a journalist at the White House and in Congress; and continuing to write poetry, stories, and essays about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Regine Ginsberg

    Oral History

    Regine Ginsberg, born on November 19, 1925, discusses her childhood in Brussels, Belgium; her father’s work in the leather industry; religious observances in the household; speaking Yiddish at home and French in school; how her father wired money to Chase Bank in New York in the 1930s; her family abandoning their home in Brussels to travel by train to France; staying with a farmer in St. Gaudens, France; the family’s arrest in St. Gaudens; how her brother and father were sent to a prison near Toulouse, France and then released seven weeks later; how her mother returned to Brussels and brought back Sabbath candlesticks, prayer shawls, tefillin, and diamond jewelry which she used to bribe guards; how her father contacted a cousin in Pennsylvania; being on the last boat out of France from Marseilles; arriving in New York in June 1942; staying with cousins in Pittsburgh, PA and then settling in McKeesport, PA; her mother and father’s work in the leather industry; moving to Texas where she met her future husband Reuben Ginsberg in Athens, TX; her brother enlisting in the army and being sent to Belgium where he did intelligence work acting as a French interpreter; studying along with her husband at Columbia University in New York; becoming an art dealer and opening up a gallery in the 1970s; her emotional state after the war; and how her wartime experiences affected her life, her marriage, and the way she raised her children.

    Oral history interview with Ursula Guttstadt McKinney

    Oral History

    Ursula Guttstadt McKinney, born November 17, 1925 in Frankfurt an der Oder, Germany, discusses her family’s professional and religious background; her childhood and the troubles she faced obtaining schooling due to being half-Jewish; the difficulties her Jewish father and cousins faced; worrying about her father getting arrested; being able to say goodbye to her father when he was taken to prison and subsequently transported to Mauthausen in October 1942; receiving news that her father died; the Third Reich taking ownership of her family’s house; getting expelled from school in October 1942; moving to Berlin, Germany with her mother and sister; the psychological effects of the war, especially the bombings; her limited contact with the underground; working at a convent where there were some hidden Jewish children; her difficulties resuming a normal life after the war; her education after the war; feeling like an outcast because of being half-Jewish; immigrating, along with her sister, to the United States; not wanting to identify as German; her feelings on being a “mischling,” or having a mixed background; not identifying with one religion and being wed in an Unitarian church; and her work as a founding member of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Rappaport

    Oral History

    Ruth Rappaport, born May 27, 1923 in Leipzig, Germany, discusses her parents, Mendel Rappaport, a Romanian subject, and Helene Rubinstein, who was born in Poland; how her mother’s cousin, also named Helene Rubinstein, was a well-known cosmetics businesswoman, attending an Orthodox Jewish school and an English language school in Leipzig, Germany; her membership in the Zionist youth group, Habonim; her Romanian passport, which did not identify her as a Jew; moving to Switzerland with her family shortly after Kristallnacht; staying in Zurich, Switzerland as a nanny for the Herzog family after her parents returned to Germany; selling nail polish, which her parents sent because they could not send money; being sponsored by her uncle, Carl Rubinstein, who lived in Seattle, Washington to come to the United States; leaving Europe in December 1939 on the Holland American Line boat, the Veendam; her parents’ attempt to leave Germany with Cuban visas; how her father died in Buchenwald and her mother in Ravensbrück, both in 1943; attending high school in Seattle, then the University of Washington, and finishing at Berkeley, majoring in sociology; working after graduation for a Jewish newspaper in Seattle and for the Zionist Emergency Council; working with Bartley Crum for UNSCOP (United Nations Special Committee on Palestine) in San Francisco, CA; working in Israel during the War of Independence in 1948, where she exchanged gunfire with Palestinians; working with Golda Meir; helping establish the Israel Photographic Archives; returning to the United States and working for the Department of Defense as a librarian; living overseas in Okinawa, Japan; Taipei, Taiwan; and Vietnam; and retiring from the government after 19 years.

    Oral history interview with Edith Langer

    Oral History

    Edith Langer, born October 4, 1932 in Hamm, Germany, discusses living on a farm; her devout Lutheran mother; memories of the prewar Jewish community in her town; her early approval of Hitler because his support of public works; meeting Hitler as a member of her scout troop; attending a one-room school with 30 children, 10 of whom were Jewish; her father’s offer to hide the families of two of his Jewish customers in her family’s farm house; her mother’s feeling that hiding Jews was the right thing to do as a Christian; her father's murder by the Nazis for hiding Jews; being sent away from her family to work on a farm, where she stayed from 1941 to 1945 and had no contact with her family; being afraid of German soldiers; seeing murdered Jews in the streets; giving food to the Russian prisoners, who were living on the farm; emigrating from Germany to the United States in 1956; becoming an American citizen in 1961; her hope that more Nazis would be tried, including the one who shot her father; her membership in the Methodist Church; and taking part in protests against the American Nazi Party.

    Oral history interview with Marianne Milkman

    Oral History

    Marianne Friedenthal Milkman, born May 13, 1931 in Berlin, Germany, discusses her childhood in Germany; being baptized and raised as Christian to have more opportunities; changing schools and apartments in 1938 because of anti-Jewish laws; her aunt Lotte Friedenthal, who worked with Pastor Martin Niemӧller; her father’s deportation to Sachsenhausen in 1938; traveling to Switzerland in January 1939 and then flying with her sister to England on a Kindertransport in May 1939; living with relatives in Cambridge, England; the arrival of her parents in England and her father’s internment on the Isle of Man as an enemy alien; joining her father on the Isle of Man in May 1940; returning to Cambridge in May 1941, where she remained throughout the war; graduating from high school and Cambridge University; coming to the United States in 1957 to study biology; getting married and living in Iowa for 30 years; settling in Washington, DC; her Jewish identity; and her feeling that her experience during the war made her a stronger person.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Cohen

    Oral History

    Ruth Friedman Cohen, born April 26, 1930 in Mukachevo, Czechoslovakia (present day Mukacheve, Ukraine), describes her life after the Holocaust; her prewar life in Czechoslovakia; her family’s religious beliefs; her family’s deportation to Auschwitz in 1944; her mother and brother’s death immediately after their arrival at Auschwitz; her transfer to Nuremberg, Germany and then Holachov; the painful effects of tuberculosis that she contracted in Holachov; her survival and liberation by the Russian Army; her and her sister’s return to Mukachevo, where they reunited with their father; her time in Budapest, Hungary and Prague, Czech Republic, where she recuperated from tuberculosis; her immigration to the United States in 1948; the various jobs she had to support herself; her marriage in 1952; her education at the New School for Social Research; and her struggle to recover from the damaging emotional and mental effects of the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Phillip Abraham

    Oral History

    Phillip Abraham, born August 10, 1931 in Podului-Turkului (Podu Turcului), Romania, describes his prewar life in Romania; his family’s religious beliefs; his childhood in a close-knit Jewish community; his family’s move to Tecuci, Romania in 1940; his father being taken away and then released in 1942; the lack of food available to the population; his education in a Jewish school; his town’s liberation by the Russian Army; his post-war Romanian education; his membership in Hashomer Hatzair, a Zionist youth organization; his time in Israel; his education at Hebrew University and Weizmann Institute, where he studied physics; his immigration to the United States in 1959; his careers at Raytheon and the Office of Naval Research; his marriage in 1964; and his two children.

    Oral history interview with George Arnstein

    Oral History

    George Ernest Arnstein, born September 20, 1924 in Stuttgart, Germany, describes his prewar life in Germany; the repercussions of the Nuremberg laws; his experiences with antisemitism; his father’s arrest on Kristallnacht; his father’s time in Dachau; his family’s decision to leave Germany and go to Geneva, Switzerland; his family’s immigration to the United States in 1938; the anti-German sentiment in America during World War II and its effects on him; his service for the United States Army beginning in 1943 and his duties as a crypto-analyst; his work in Germany helping to perform interrogations, monitoring anti-American efforts, and denazification; his return to Wisconsin after the war; his education at Berkeley and Geneva; and his life post-war.

    Oral history interview with Gertrude Scarlett Epstein

    Oral History

    Gertrude Scarlett Epstein, born July 13, 1922 in Vienna, Austria, describes her early life growing up in Vienna; her Czech father’s belief in free thinking; how her family was not religious; her parents’ and older brothers’ experiences during World War I; her Uncle Willie, who became wealthy as a textile factory owner; how she began to notice antisemitism in Vienna when her family moved to a non-Jewish part of town in the 1930s; her father’s and oldest brother’s activities in the socialist movement; her memories of a strike in Vienna in 1934; her memories of the Anschluss; her brothers’ immigration to England; her experience securing visas for Czechoslovakia on the day Hitler entered Vienna; her feelings that her moral code shifted as it became necessary to lie; her father’s arrest and later release from jail in Czechoslovakia; the family’s move to Albania by train; help provided to the family by her Uncle Willie; how she smuggled money out of Austria and Czechoslovakia; her family’s life in Albania from November 1938 to April 1939; the reaction of native Albanians towards Austrian refugees; how the Joint Distribution Committee helped refugees in Albania; her experiences teaching German to Albanians and the Italian consulate; problems she and her mother had in securing passage from Albania to England; brutal treatment she and her mother received from German police at a fuel stop in Germany; her memories of learning about concentration camps in 1943 or 1944; and how she tracked down an Albanian family to whom she taught German.

    Oral history interview with Matilde Neuwirt

    Oral History

    Matilde Neuwirt, born December 26, 1930 in Belgrade, Serbia, describes her early life in Belgrade; how her parents spoke Serbo-Croatian and Ladino at home; her family’s upper-middle class lifestyle; her schooling at both a public and a Jewish school; the lack of apprehension she felt in the pre-war years; her mother’s decision that the family leave Yugoslavia in the summer of 1940; her family’s escape westward through Dubrovnik, Croatia and then to Italy; how her parents smuggled money out of Yugoslavia; her family’s arrival in Italy without visas; living in Vicenza, Italy; how her family was moved to a detention camp in Sandrigo by the Italian authorities; the unofficial schooling that families set up for the children in Sandrigo; how the Italian authorities encouraged families to leave Sandrigo when Italy capitulated to the Germans; the help Jewish families received from a government official to get false documents; her family’s experience traveling to Rome, Italy; her memories of German brutality on the streets; how she did not know what was happening to Jews elsewhere in the country nor the rest of Europe; her brother’s return to Yugoslavia to fight with Tito’s partisans; the anti-Jewish sentiment of the partisans; her brother’s disappearance and the lack of information about him from the Yugoslav government; her family’s decision to emigrate from Italy to the United States in 1949; her family’s arrival in New York, NY; her feelings about Americanization and leaving memories of Europe behind; her memories of the Eichmann trial; her experiences returning to Yugoslavia and Italy after the war; and her belief that her family was lucky in the way they lived through the war.

    Oral history interview with Susanne K. Bennet

    Oral History

    Susanne Klejman Bennet, born August 11, 1938 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her memories of entering the Warsaw ghetto; seeing the brick walls being built in the ghetto; living with her grandparents, aunts, and uncles all together in one apartment; beggars asking for food in her building; how her father, a successful art and antiquities dealer, arranged with a non-Jewish friend to have a Polish policeman take her out of the ghetto to a farm in the countryside; how, just before the destruction of the ghetto, her mother escaped from her work group and hid with nuns who gave her a habit and a new name; how the nuns were later rounded up, but were saved on the train platform by a Catholic commandant; how her father escaped from the ghetto through the sewers right before the uprising and went into hiding throughout Warsaw; how as a young child, she knew not to talk about her parents; seeing the red sky in the distance when Warsaw was burning in 1944; her reunion with her parents; the death of most of her relatives during the Holocaust; moving with her parents to Stockholm, Sweden in 1947; receiving visas in 1949 from the Swedish ambassador to Mexico where she and her family stayed for nine months; immigrating to the United States in 1950; living in New York where her father opened up a store off of Fifth Avenue and became a major art dealer with John and Robert Kennedy, the Rockefellers, the Fords, and Greta Garbo as his clients; attending Wellesley College, where she received a masters in library science; meeting her husband Douglas Bennet, who later worked for Hubert Humphrey, Senator Abe Ribicoff, and was an Assistant Secretary of State, head of US AID and NPR, and president of Wesleyan College; their eldest son, Michael, a United States senator from Colorado; their second son, James, the editor-in-chief of The Atlantic Monthly; their daughter, Holly, a financial adviser; her feelings when visiting Germany with her husband; how her father never spoke about his wartime experience; and how she has only recently started talking about her childhood during the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Marianne Roberts

    Oral History

    Marianne Roberts (née Marianne Cohn), born June 20, 1920 in Ludwigshafen, Germany, discusses her childhood in Ludwigshafen; experiencing antisemitism; her father's death from tuberculosis in 1933; her expulsion from school with her sister, Lottie, because they were Jewish; her mother's death in 1936; being photographed at the City Hall to show her "Jewish left ear" and being given the name ‘Sarah’; living with her sister until Kristallnacht; hiding in a basement for three days with no food while their apartment was being destroyed; moving into her sister's fiancé’s family's house for a few months and never going outside; going to the American Consulate to get visas their mother had applied for three years previously; leaving Germany in early 1939 with 4 dollars, pots and pans, and a family ring; sailing on the Cunard White Star to New York, NY; working in a doctor's office in Brooklyn; getting married and having two children; and speaking for past 20 years in schools and colleges about her wartime experiences.

    Oral history interview with Harry Markowicz

    Oral History

    Harry Markowicz, born August 9, 1937 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his childhood in Antwerp, Belgium; being hidden during the war with the Coons family in Brussels, Belgium, then in a children's home, and then in the Von der Linden's house under the name Henry Von der Linden; his parents who lived in hiding with another couple; how his father did not go outside for two years while in hiding; his brother, Mani, who was saved by Father Joseph Andre; how his mother found him after liberation; the removal of Allied flags at the time of the Battle of the Bulge because of fear that German forces would make their way to Brussels; arriving in the United States with his parents in March 1951; settling in Seattle, WA and going to high school and the University of Washington; traveling to Paris, France for a year for training as a French teacher; traveling to Israel to learn Hebrew; teaching French in Tacoma, WA; learning sign language and working at Gallaudet University for 29 years; feeling more comfortable among Holocaust survivors; and volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, where he feels a bond with the other volunteers.

    Oral history interview with Julie A. Keefer

    Oral History

    Julie Keefer (née Jula Weinstock Eisen), born on April 19, 1941 in Lvov, Poland (present day L'viv, Ukraine), discusses her family’s forced relocation into the Lvov ghetto; the escape of her grandfather, Aiski Eisen, from a camp in Janov; her grandfather finding help from Mr. Borecki, who told him in late 1943 that the ghetto was to be burned, and her grandfather’s rescue of her family from the ghetto; her memories of a tunnel or bunker in the forest, to which a few dozen people were smuggled out of the ghetto; her memories of her grandfather donning a Nazi uniform to smuggle people out of the ghetto; being taken out of the bunker because she and her baby sister, Tola, were endangering others by crying; being placed with Mrs. Szwarczynski, a Catholic woman; the arrival of the Russians in Lvov in June 1944; staying in three displaced persons camps in 1945; living in Camp Taylor in Linz, Austria; traveling alone at seven years old to the United States, where she lived in a series of Catholic orphanages, seeing relatives on weekends; being called a Nazi because she spoke German; being sent by the Joint Distribution Committee to the Bellefaire Jewish Children's Orphanage in Cleveland, OH; her adoption by Fred and Tea Klejstadt; attending Oberlin College; getting married and earning a graduate degree in education; feeling grateful to United States; and her desire to find out what happened to her hidden sister whose name became Antonina Noviska.

    Oral history interview with Erica Laufer

    Oral History

    Erica Laufer, born May 11, 1930 in Klagenfurt, Austria, discusses being the only Jewish child in her school, where she was taught by nuns; her mother denying her Jewish identity but her father being observant; an appearance by Hitler after the Anschluss; being forced to wear the yellow Star of David; being barred from attending school; moving into her grandfather's apartment in Vienna, Austria and living there in secret; SA attacks on Jewish homes; witnessing the events of Kristallnacht while hiding in a doorway; how her father obtained tickets to Trinidad; sailing on the Dutch ship Cotica with other refugees; establishing a life in Port of Spain, Trinidad; being forced, as refuges, to live in a detention center after England entered the war; going to a boarding school to be the companion to the daughter of the director; sailing to New York, NY with her parents in December 1940; moving to Washington, DC where she was discriminated against by other children because of her accent; her academic success; her work for the federal government; getting married and starting a family; not raising her children as Jews following an oath to her mother; the number of relatives she lost in Europe; and her attempts to suppress her feelings about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Barbara Goldberg

    Oral History

    Barbara Goldberg, born in 1943 in Wilmington, DE, discusses her parents, Emma and Erich, who received visas from the Portuguese diplomat Aristides de Sousa Mendes to emigrate from France to Portugal; their journey over the Pyrenees to Spain and then to Portugal; their arrival in the United States; her uncle Paul Brennan (born Pavel Briess) who had been in Theresienstadt and Auschwitz; how other relatives made it to Palestine, Australia, and South Africa; speaking only German in the house; how her parents’ personalities were shaped by the war; never discussing the past or other relatives' stories; feeling a connection to refugees; living with the memory of the Holocaust; and her discovery later in life that Aristides de Sousa Mendes had helped her family.

    Oral history interview with Liselotte Epstein Ivry

    Oral History

    Liselotte Epstein Ivry, born July 21, 1925 in Lichtenstein, Czechoslovakia (possibly present day Lichtenstein, Saxony, Germany), describes her family, including her father Victor Ivry, mother Elsa Sicher, and younger brother Hans; the large families on both her father’s and mother’s sides; having heard of Hitler at age 12; being taken by truck with soldiers to live with relatives in a nearby village and then by train to live in Prague, Czech Republic; the many changes after the Germans marched in on March 15, 1939; having been set to go to Great Britain in 1939 on the Kindertransport but instead being sent first to a children’s facility in Prague and then to a private home; being sent to Terezin September 9, 1942 to work as a nurse in the hospital; the transport and death of her mother and brother on March 8, 1944; being sent on December 15, 1943 in a cattle car to Auschwitz, to Block 11; being given number 70663; how the will to live was what kept you alive; being sent to Hamburg, Germany to work first in a sand pit, then as a train switcher, and finally as a brick-maker; how their camp was bombed and they were moved to Bergen-Belsen; the ensuing chaos and then the emotion and celebration after being liberated by the British; eventually going to Canada in 1949 to stay with her uncle; marrying in 1950 to a Lithuanian, Sydney; her children; her attitude about Germany now and forgiving but not forgetting; her book, I Am Their Voice, which is a collection of poems, letters, and anecdotes by children from her 25 years as a speaker; and how now she is doing research for a work about Madeleine Albright.

    Oral history interview with Hans Ziegler

    Oral History

    Hans Ziegler, born June 12, 1925 in Brno, Czechoslovakia, discusses being raised as a Christian with a Jewish father; his parents divorcing in 1934; his father’s factory going out of business in 1937; attending a German elementary school; his father’s deportation to Terezin (Theresienstadt concentration camp) in 1942; being transported to Berlin, Germany in 1943 for forced labor; being sent in September 1944 to Postelberg (Postoloprty), Czech Republic; escaping in April 1945 with two others to the woods; hiding in Brno until the Russians arrived; getting repatriated and going to university for three years; being expelled by the Soviets in 1949 because his father was a capitalist and a diplomat; being in the military for two years; being employed as a chemist in an armaments factory; working in Egypt and Afghanistan; escaping to Germany in 1970 and staying until 1983; going to the United States and working in Warren, Ohio until 1990; going back to Germany; feeling more Jewish than Christian; and how he thinks more about his father and his war-time experiences.

    Oral history interview with Vera Levine

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Guenter Lewy

    Oral History

    Guenter Lewy, born August 22, 1923 in Breslau, Germany (Wrocław, Poland), discusses his childhood in a large extended assimilated family; his memory of seeing Hitler at the 1936 Olympics; belonging to a Jewish Zionist youth group; being attacked on a hiking trip by German storm troopers; his father’s three month imprisonment in Buchenwald after Kristallnacht; going with Youth Aliyah via Trieste to Palestine in March 1939; being met in Haifa by his uncle; living on Kibbutz Tzarad where he worked as a shepherd; his parents’ escape to the United States in late 1941; volunteering in early 1942 for the Palestine Regiment of the British Army; joining the Jewish Brigade and being stationed in Egypt; traveling to Italy with Montgomery's 8th Army in late 1944; traveling to Holland at the war’s end; his role in organizing illegal immigration to Palestine; interrogating German civilians in Berlin; returning to Palestine; traveling to the United States to see his parents in late 1946; graduating from college in 1951 and earning a Master's and Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1957; teaching at Columbia, Smith College, and University of Massachusetts; teaching in Germany from 1961 to 1962; his feelings about German people today; the strong influence of his youth group on his resilience; his writings on the moral dimensions of history and the Nazi persecution of the Romani peoples; his current interest in writing about Holocaust perpetrators; reoccurring dreams about Nazis brutality; and feeling that some of the best Holocaust scholarship has being written by contemporary young German scholars.

    Oral history interview with Malvy Solomon

    Oral History

    Malvy Solomon (née Aizic), born in 1938 in Bacau, Romania, discusses pre-war violence against Jews; her father’s conscription into forced labor for the Romanian military in 1941; living with her mother and grandmother in the ghetto with little food; her father’s return in 1944; attending a Jewish primary school and learning Hebrew; surviving bombings; the Soviet arrival in Romania at war’s end; Soviet looting after the war; her school’s closure by Soviet authorities; post-war antisemitism and anti-Capitalist feelings; her father’s job working for the communist government after he was forced to close his store; finishing high school at 16; her medical schooling and career; her marriage; immigrating to Israel in 1961; attending medical school in Tel Aviv; getting divorced, treating soldiers and bombing victims; remarrying in 1971; immigrating to the United States; her education in the U.S.; working for the Department of Veterans Affairs; and her feelings about the war, communism, and her life.

    Oral history interview with Elia Miranski and Genia Miranski

    Oral History

    Elia Miranski, born on August 3, 1922 in Mir, Poland (present day Belarus), describes growing up in a poor, moderately religious family but experiencing no antisemitism until the German invasion in 1939; his parents’ deaths in the first few days of the occupation; escaping with his brother, Israel, from the ghetto which had been set up in a castle; joining Russian partisans in the forest; blowing up railroad tracks for two years; trains near Valozhyn, Belarus; planes dropping supplies; others taking the wounded away from the front lines; Russians mobilizing all partisans into the army; being wounded by the Germans; traveling back to Mir after the war; working on a dairy farm for seven years as a supervisor; moving to Minsk, Belarus and working as a house painter; getting married and having a daughter; going to Israel in 1972 and then to the United States in 1995; thinking day and night about his wartime experiences; and going back to Mir from Israel for a memorial ceremony in the cemetery. Genia Miranski, daughter of Elia Miranski, adds to her father’s interview by translating it into English and by describing Elia’s membership in the Zionist youth group Hashomer Hatzair; Elia’s parents and two younger siblings being shot by Germans; Elia building bridges and roads; witnessing his friend being mauled to death by a dog; living in the castle ghetto; Elia’s experience escaping and hiding in a swamp for three days and at times breathing through a straw when German dogs were nearby; joining Russian partisans; his return to Minsk at the end of the war and experiencing a significant amount of antisemitism; the Six Day War in Israel; going to an underground bakery at night to get Passover matzo; arriving in Israel in 1972; living in underground bunkers in 1973 during the Yom Kippur War; and her own arrival in the U.S. in 1985 and her parents’ arrival in 1995.

    Oral history interview with Maria Kordalewski

    Oral History

    Maria Kordalewski, born April 13, 1924 in Poland, describes her Ukrainian parents and her two siblings, Nicolai and Nadja; going to school and her Jewish friends; the Russians coming in 1939 and the subsequent food shortages; how people were being sent away to Siberia; the absence of antisemitism in their small town until the German occupation in 1941; how her family hid two boys until the boys escaped; how her brother was arrested in 1942, along with other young men, as a means of preventing an uprising; the Russians coming in 1945 when the war was over; being sent with her sister to Lvov (L'viv, Ukraine) to get away from the communists; being sent to a displaced persons camp in Regensburg, Germany and going to school to study pharmaceuticals; arriving in the United States in 1950 by herself; landing in New York City, NY; the various jobs she held at first; moving to Detroit, MI then to California, and finally to Miami, FL; and her feelings that the Holocaust should never be forgotten.

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