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Ferencz: International Criminal Tribunal, Rwanda

Film

Hosts: Richard Roth and James Bone, Times of London, United Nations Program discusses setting up an international criminal tribunal for Rwanda. Participants include John Shattuck, US Assistant Secretary of State for human rights in Rwanda, Cherif Bassiouni, expert on war crimes allegedly committed in Yugoslavia, and Benjamin Ferencz, prosecutor of Nuremberg War Crimes Trial. Ferencz states that it is "high time" for the international community to react and enforce law so that genocide can no longer be tolerated. It is the determination of the international community to maintain peace. At the same time, we cannot trade justice and peace. Bassiouni agrees, arguing for a permanent international criminal court instead of tribunals. Ferencz notes that the general principles declared at Nuremberg, affirmed unanimously by the United Nations, are not implemented.

Ferencz lecture: Kean College

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Second in a series of lectures by Benjamin Ferencz at Kean College, New Jersey. (First lecture: RG-12.020*11). Ferencz discusses his vision for new world order, world security in the 21st century, the establishment of an international criminal court to try Sadam Hussein, and what constitutes international crime. He defines the need for international standards that declare what is permissable and not permissable ("the charter for the earth"). To curb the "Wild West" mentality of international relations, Ferencz proposes the following components of new world order and a peaceful society: 1) rational arms control; 2) international military force (i.e., UN peacekeeping forces); 3) economic sanctions; and 4) more effective social justice. He reminds the audience how long it may take, using the growth and implementation of human rights as an example. Ferencz encourages the public to reeducate themselves to think in human terms and planetary terms. Furthermore, he identifies the need for an international criminal court. He argues that there is a strong part of the US that does not want international law and order, who believe might equals right. Ferencz explains the seal of the US and its relationship to the hope for a new world order. A question and answer period follows.

Ferencz lecture: Kean College

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First in a series of lectures by Benjamin Ferencz at Kean College, New Jersey. (Second lecture: RG-12.020*12). Ferencz speaks about the problems of our small planet, the difficulties for the environment, what progress has been made, and how people can curb hazardous habits and help the planet. He discusses the exploding population, dangerous consumption habits, and problems with disposal of waste. Besides education and awareness, Ferencz identifies the need to establish international law to control what happens to the planet. For example, he defines the Law of the Sea that determines who can fish where, what you cannot do to pollute the waters, the limits of territorial sovereignty, and an effective way for settling disputes at a Tribunal (in Hamburg, Germany). He claims the human species is the most endangered because it has the (nuclear) power to destroy all life on the planet--many times over. He concludes with an inspiring way--a new pledge of allegiance--to begin thinking in planetary terms: "I pledge allegiance to the earth, this unique blue water planet, graced by life, our only home. I promise to respect all living things, to protect to the best of my abilities all parts of our planet's environment and to promote peace among the human family with liberty and justice for all." A question and answer period follows. Responding to a student question, Ferencz suggests the creation of a Security Council for the Environment in the United Nations in order to maintain international peace and protect the planet. This will promote a more rational system of governance.

Panel discussion with Taylor, Ferencz, Drinan, and Dershowitz

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Panel discussion: The Significance of Nuremberg, Principles and Precedents. Speakers include Telford Taylor, Benjamin B. Ferencz, Father Drinan, and Alan Dershowitz. Boston College Law School. Taylor discusses the judicial process as a step in the direction of an ordered world and peace (in his view, this was "the most significant accomplishment of Nuremberg"). Ferencz claims the fundamental principles established as a result of the Nuremberg judgments are a) aggressive war is a crime; b) crimes against humanity; c) head of state is responsible under law. Ferencz argues that the elaborate restitution program designed to compensate survivors was a direct consequence of Nuremberg. Furthermore, he urges the audience to recognize that Nuremberg marked the beginning of an awakening of consciences and that the future significance of Nuremberg depends on "you!" Drinan stresses the importance of establishing a permanent international criminal commission. Dershowitz regards Nuremberg as an appropriate forum for judging the Holocaust (as compared to contemporary inappropriate examples in Canada). Question and Answer session, including a final comment by Rabbi Irving Greenberg concerning the marked idealism of panel participants. He highlighted Nuremberg's main contribution as a combination of political decision-making and judicial procedures.

Ferencz interviewed by Fred Fiske

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Radio interview with Benjamin Ferencz. Host: Fred Fiske. WAMU-FM 88.5 Ferencz argues that war criminals should continue to be prosecuted today to indicate revulsion of the crimes committed. He mentions repeatedly that we need to remember man's inhumanity to man. He discusses the Kurt Waldheim controversy, the problems in selecting defendents for his trial at Nuremberg, and slave labor in German big business. He regards laws, courts, and a system of effective enforcement as necessary to achieve a peaceful world. Ferencz stresses that all genocidal acts should be condemned in an international criminal court giving defendents the opportunity for a fair trial. Listeners ask questions during the interview.

Noam Chomsky lecture

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Lecture by Professor Noam Chomsky. Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS.

Ferencz lecture: slave labor, "Less Than Slaves"

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Book and Author Luncheon, Benjamin Ferencz, "Less Than Slaves," Harvard University Press, 1979. Introduction by Ted Friedman, program director of the Anti-Defamation Leage of B'nai B'rith. Second introduction by Telford Taylor. Taylor praises the book for its unique content and contribution to the "new and amorphous field of the subject of international penal law." Benjamin Ferencz provides an outline of the book and answers many questions from the audience. In the book, Ferencz deals with the German plan of Vernichtung durch Arbeit ["destruction through work"] in which millions were coerced into forced labor for the Nazi war machine. He gives a sampling of the collaboration of Nazi administration and German industry with the cases of I.G. Farben, Alfred Krupp, and Friedrische Flick. Ferencz details his efforts in compensation as well as the legal negotiations and settlements made with German industrialists. He elaborates on the profound lack of remorse and inability of industrialists to accept legal or moral responsibility. This experience "without compassion" is what, according to Ferencz, made massacre possible. Ferencz introduces survivors interviewed for the book: Ted Lehman and Norbert Wollheim. Lehman was responsible for the poignant and accurate title of the book--Less Than Slaves--because, he explains, a slave is someone you try to preserve and keep alive. "But we were pieces of sandpaper to be rubbed until no longer useful and to be thrown away and burned like the rest of garbage." A question and answer period follows.

Ferencz interviewed by Lynn Samuels

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Radio interview with Benjamin Ferencz. Host: Lynn Samuels. WBAI. Interview focuses on Ferencz's involvement at Nuremberg and in negotiations with the West German government for restitution of property. The Reparations Treaty provided a) a lump sum (3 billion DM) to Israel paid in German goods over 10-12 years; b) $100 million to Jewish charitable organizations over a ten year period for relief work outside of Israel in reestabishing Nazi survivors and Jewish communities; and c) special new laws in Germany for compensation to survivors if they prove injury from Nazi persecution [injury includes: 1) loss of freedom, for instance, through incarceration at a concentration camp); 2) permanent physical disability; or 3) economic losses, for instance, barring Jews from practicing certain professions]. Ferencz also played a key role in developing a legal aid society (United Restitution Organization) to help victims. He discusses in great detail the content of his book "Less than Slaves" (1979) that deals primarily with forced labor and German industrialists. For the most part, these huge corporations claimed they saved Jewish lives and refused to either legally or morally compensate victims. Also, they claimed they were forced to employ slave labor, which according to Ferencz is a "filthy lie," as he discovered documentation otherwise.

Keith Suter interviewed on nuclear arms and peace

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Radio interview with Dr. Keith Suter from the Trinity Peace Research Institute. Host: Jenny ? 6UVS-FM Perth, Australia. Suter explains the importance of an American publication by US Armed Forces General Kidd, "Strategic Cooperation Initiative" (1990). Kidd argues that instead of going ahead with "starwars," Americans should opt for an alternative strategy which would emphasize cooperation with the Soviets. Suter received the book via mail from Benjamin Ferencz at the Peace Research Center at Pace University, NY. Suter continues to lecture on the campaign to end the arms race.

Ferencz lecture: Berkeley Law School

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Ferencz contends that the Nuremberg trial should demonstrate in penal action man's right to live in peace and dignity. Therefore, he concludes that law has a large role to play in establishing peace. Those principles sufficiently developed at Nuremberg (crime of aggressive war and crimes against humanity) help us to create a peaceful world. He advises implementing the following mechanisms in an international arena to reverse "international anarchy": 1) laws; 2) courts; and 3) enforcement. Furthermore, Ferencz outlines his idea for a better international structure in the United Nations: 1) disarmament or arms control; 2) effective sanctions and peacekeeping forces; and 3) social justice. He urges the students to utilize common sense policies to overcome problems, enact changes, and promote peace. Ferencz also discusses his leadership in compensations claims for Nazi victims. A question and answer period follows.

Ferencz lecture: Wiesenthal Holocaust Center

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Ferencz lecture. Wiesenthal Holocaust Center, Los Angeles, CA. Second in five part series on Nazi war crimes trials. Ferencz discusses how the Nuremberg proceedings informed his life, his involvement in major restitution programs, and his understanding of "Never Again" through developing international law, an international criminal court, and defining aggression. He explains the legal precedents established at Nuremberg, including a) crime of aggression; b) crimes against humanity; c) trying heads of state; and d) guaranteeing rights to every prisoner (innocent until proven guilty in a court of law). Ferencz describes the mentality of his defendents at Nuremberg, elaborating on their intellect and benevolent family attitudes. In one case, he tells how General Ohlendorf, responsible for ordering the deaths of over 90,000 Jews, expressed a "humanitarian" approach in allowing mothers to hold their babies as they were being shot. He also describes the lack of remorse among defendents at Nuremberg. Ferencz explains in detail negotiations of a reparations agreement that awarded survivors compensation for deprivation of liberty as a result of incarceration in concentration camps (as a direct consequence of persecution). Ferencz urges the audience to recognize that Nuremberg marked the beginnings of an awakening of the human conscience to the injustices of nations. Ferencz stresses the need to codify international law and encourages common sense and individual involvement. A question and answer period follows.

Ferencz interviewed by Michael

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Interview with Benjamin Ferencz. Host: Michael ? Ferencz explains his opinion of war criminals and international war crimes tribunals in light of strife in Yugoslavia. He stresses the need to create new standards of international law that define aggression as a crime and what constitutes war crimes and crimes against humanity. Furthermore, he argues that the international arena cannot just impose law, but rather must establish a rule of law for everyone to live by, otherwise the world will continue to employ barbarism under the guise of patriotism.

Ferencz interviewed by Richard Hudson

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Interview with Benjamin Ferencz. Host: Richard Hudson, executive director of the Center for War/Peace Studies. Sponsored by the Center for War/Peace Studies. Series discusses ways of enabling the United Nations to seek a world of peace with justice. Interview focuses on the Center's proposal of a binding triad system for global decision-making (included in Ferencz's book, "A Common Sense Guide to World Peace," 1985). Ferencz describes two defining elements of his book: a) the bridge to peace involves three interlocking components: law, courts, and enforcement; b) if people are better informed, better educated, better organized, and more united they will be able to assert their right to live in dignity and peace. Furthemore, he defines essential enforcement techniques to acheive world peace: a) improved international order; b) arms controls; c) a system of effective economic sanctions; d) international military force coupled with an improved system of social justice. Ferencz stresses the necessity to build a peace system to replace the war system. He urges creation and enforcement of legislature. Finally, Ferencz asserts the importance of education. In closing, Hudson says, "Stay with us...if enough of you do, we can change the world."

Series on peace and nuclear arms

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Association for Counselor Education and Supervision presents the Quest for Peace series with host John M. Whiteley. Guest: Helen Caldicott, MD, founder of Women's Action for Nuclear Disarmament and author of "Nuclear Madness" and "Missile Envy." Program discusses how nuclear technology threatens life on the planet. Caldicott argues that nationalism means extinction and that we must instead pursue a safer world and direct human instincts to altruism, pride, and love.

Ferencz interviewed by Rev. G. Arthur Hammons

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Interview with Benjamin Ferencz. Host: Rev. G. Arthur Hammons. Ferencz discusses his optimistic approach to world peace and explains guidelines to further world peace (as published in his "A Common Sense Guide to World Peace," 1985). He claims the world should be governed by three principles: law, courts, and enforcement. Such an effective system will enable international law, and thus man's right to live in peace and dignity. Ferencz relates an important lesson learned at Nuremberg: "We are all our brothers' keepers." Ferencz argues that people, not the government, are responsible for effecting peace. When Hammons asks, "Do you believe that we can and will have peace?" Ferencz replies, "We have no alternative!" Ferencz indicates this is not an easy or immediate process, but with a) reformed United Nations; b) arms control; c) economic sanctions; d) international military force; and e) social justice, the world can move towards international peace. Ferencz urges the public to "Help in every way you can!" to bring about peace. In closing, Hammons reminds viewers to write in to receive their free gift of Ferencz's book "A Common Sense Guide to World Peace" and to affirm "I am a peacemaker."

Ferencz interviewed by Rev. G. Arthur Hammons

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Interview with Benjamin Ferencz. Host: Rev. G. Arthur Hammons. Ferencz discusses his optimistic approach to world peace and explains guidelines to further world peace (as published in his "A Common Sense Guide to World Peace," 1985). He claims the world should be governed by three principles: law, courts, and enforcement. Such an effective system will enable international law, and thus man's right to live in peace and dignity. Ferencz relates an important lesson learned at Nuremberg: "We are all our brothers' keepers." Ferencz argues that people, not the government, are responsible for effecting peace. When Hammons asks, "Do you believe that we can and will have peace?" Ferencz replies, "We have no alternative!" Ferencz indicates this is not an easy or immediate process, but with a) reformed United Nations; b) arms control; c) economic sanctions; d) international military force; and e) social justice, the world can move towards international peace. Ferencz urges the public to "Help in every way you can!" to bring about peace. In closing, Hammons reminds viewers to write in to receive their free gift of Ferencz's book "A Common Sense Guide to World Peace" and to affirm "I am a peacemaker."

Ferencz interviewed by Russel Harvey

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Interview with Benjamin Ferencz. Host: Russel Harvey. Benjamin Ferencz expresses his concern for world peace. He demands that the world clearly define laws for human behavior, and thus for international fundamentals. Ferencz encourages education, common sense, recognition of progress in peace-making, rational processes for settling differences, and planetary thinking.

Ferencz interviewed on the peace process and Nuremberg

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Interview with Benjamin Ferencz. Host: Kenneth Simon Ferencz discusses his involvement with the peace process as a constructive contribution to the world. He wants to make permanent what he and others did at Nuremberg: 1) prohibit aggression by making war a crime; 2) prohibit crimes against humanity; 3) prohibit war crimes. He speaks about both the failure and progress of the United Nations and charges all people as particularly responsible for not inducing change for a more peaceful world. Ferencz defines the fundamental components of a system of international peace that will tear down bureacracy: 1) disarmament; 2) effective economic sanctions; 3) United Nations military force; and 4) enhanced enforcement. Furthermore, he identifies three critical features of an international criminal court (all of which are void in the current international arena): 1) laws; 2) courts; and 3) enforcement. Ferencz criticizes sovereignty as irrational and calls for reason and cooperation to better serve the people. He closes demanding improvement, tolerance, compassion, involvement, and ultimately, peace.

Ferencz discusses international law and human rights to manage the planet

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The Planet is at Risk. A number of contemporaries offer commentary and suggestions to meet the challenges of the next century, including a) Nick Dunlop, Parliamentarians Global Action; b) Barbara Wien, Institute for Policy Studies; c) Norman Cousius, Author; d) Dieter Heinrich, World Association for World Federation; e) Patricia Mische, Global Education Associates; f) Benjamin Ferencz, Author; and g) Senator Paul Simon. Text of biographical informations scrolls at end of program. Ferencz asserts that international laws are defective but are improving (i.e. Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg). He also declares that a reformed planet is not utopian but, rather, self-evident. Ferencz admits that we must manage the planet in a rational way.

Global Structures Convocation panel discussion on UN reforms

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Panel Discussion: "Case for Comprehensive Reforms of the UN" Global Structures Convocation, Crystal City, VA. February 3-6,1994. (tape 50 in conference series) Panelists include: Benjamin Ferencz, John Logue (director of the Common Heritage Institute; president of World Federalist Association), Tad Daley (executive director of Campaign for a New UN Charter), and Benton Musselwhite (president of One World Now). The moderator is Melinda Burrell. Ferencz discusses his twenty years of dedicated work on trying to create a rational world order. He expresses great concern about the lack of enforcement of the promises outlined in the charters of both the League of Nations and the United Nations. He identifies the main source of the "great betrayal" in the veto power. Ferencz proposes 1) a system of clear laws to define what is permissable and not permissable; 2) a system of courts to determine whether laws have been violated and to serve as a forum for the settlement of disputes; and 3) a system of effective enforcement to achieve peace and dignity for all humankind. These essential ingredients, according to Ferencz, are critical for all lawful societies. He encourages the audience to recognize what has already been done and to build on it to make it work. He charges the Security Council with implementing all aspects of its charter through taking the authority and responsibility to maintain peace. They should set up four structures and agencies of peace to enforce: 1) disarmament; 2) effective sanctions; 3) an international military force; and 4) a system of effective social justice. Within this system, no veto power would be applicable. Finally, Ferencz urges determination on the part of all to make a lawful international arena work, exclaiming, "Stop dreaming and start screaming. The time is now!" Logue speaks about comprehensive legal reform (what, why, how). Daley argues that by 1995 the international community should initiate a process that will lead to a world summit for a new UN charter. Musselwhite introduces his worldview for a peaceful planet.

Global Structures Convocation panel discussion on ICC

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Panel Discussion: "Permanent International Criminal Court" Global Structures Convocation, Crystal City, VA. February 3-6,1994. (tape 10 in conference series) Panelists include: Michael Scharf (law professor at New England College of Law), Walter Hoffmann (president of the Center for UN Reform Education), Melinda Borrell (activist, lobbyist), Diane Orentlicher (law professor at American University), David Kreeger (president of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation), and Benjamin Ferencz. The moderator is John McDonald. Ferencz explains the precedent of an international military tribunal set up at Nuremberg and stresses the important element of fairness instituted there. He contends that the missing link in an international legal order is the international criminal court. He encourages involvement on all levels to develop this structure, as it is in everyone's interest to have international security and peace. Other vital components are 1) disarmament; 2) economic sanctions; 3) social justice; and 4) compulsory jurisdiction. A question and answer period follows.

Global Structures Convocation panel discussion on peacekeeping

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Panel Discussion: "Peacekeeping versus Peacemaking" Global Structures Convocation, Crystal City, VA. February 3-6,1994. (tape 23 in conference series) Panelists include: Ambassador H. Sardenburg (to United Nations from Brazil), Erskine Childers (dedicated life's work toward strengthening peace), Michael Stopford (director of UN Information Center; respresentative to UN Secretary General in Washington, DC), Phyllis Bennis (UN and Middle East correspondent for Pacifica radio), Louis Sohn (distinguished professor of law at Harvard, director of Peace Institute), and Harold Stasin (the only living signer of the UN charter). The moderator is Ved Nanda. Panelists discuss what would be the role of peacekeeping, the role of peacemaking, how these issues bear on the present composition of the Security Council, the way the Security Council interprets its mandate, and the Security Council's relationship with the General Assembly and the International Court of Justice. In addition, they speak about how to function effectively, how peace and justice are inseparable, and how to maintain international peace and security. A question and answer session follows, in which Benjamin Ferencz raises key issues about the failure of the Security Council and the UN, the role of the US, the possible modifications to be made in the future, and what the general public can do to inspire change. A question and answer period follows.

Global Structures Convocation panel discussion on global peace

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Panel Discussion: "Global Peace Conference" Global Structures Convocation, Crystal City, VA. February 3-6,1994. (tape 33 in conference series) Panelists include: Patricia Chuse (president of the Center for International Cooperation), Benjamin Ferencz, Taneka Moore (international youth coordinator for the Association for Global Peace Conference), Avon Madison (president of Pathways to Peace), and Denton Musselwhite. The moderator is Walter Hardaway. Panelists discuss developing a Global Peace Conference where nations can sit down and discuss conflict and peace resolution. They propose change within the cycle of the human being through organizing this convocation to analyze the needs for a global society and planetary thinking. Ferencz suggests international interdependence and involvement in maintaining peace and dignity. He encourages all to "let your voices be heard." A question and answer period follows.

Global Structures Convocation panel discussion on security council reform

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Panel Discussion: "Security Council Composition Reform Proposals" Global Structures Convocation, Crystal City, VA. February 3-6,1994. (tape 35 in conference series) Panelists include: Sohn (provides an opening background), Scwartzberg (delivers his proposal), Childers (comments on proposal and subject), Ferencz (comments and delivers his proposal). The moderator is Ved Nanda. Ferencz boldly evaluates the present-day Security Council, calling it "tremendously ridiculous." He is outraged at the arrogance involved and the veto power provided. His modification and proposal allows the Security Council, if they have the political will, to erect an organ to carry out the necessary executive functions of 1) disarmament; 2) economic sanctions; 3) UN military forces; and 4) a system of effective social justice. This body is to be run by professionals in their field, not by aside bureaucrats sent in by governments to carry out interests of their own country. Under control of the Security Council, they could adopt new rules without any charter amendments. The rules would call for a kind of balance and sharing of responsibility so that everyone feels and recognizes that their concern is for all of humankind. Ferencz drafted his ideas in a number of books and claims that the process has already started, we just need to nurture and accelerate it. Finally, he admits that if the political will exists, his way can and will effect change quickly. A question and answer period follows.

Second Global Structures Convocation lecture by Ferencz

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Lecture, "Creating Global Structures for Agenda 21." Second Global Structures Convocation, Washington, DC. February 6-9, 1992. ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT (tape 10 in conference series) Introduction by Robert Livingston, president of Positions for Social Responsibility. Second introduction by Catherine Porter, executive director of US Citizens Network. Ferencz discusses new structures needed to create a more peaceful planet. Broad frameworks include a world community that is environmentally healthy, free from war, and economically sound. He argues for coordinated action on an international basis. To achieve this linked global structure, Ferencz introduces three fundamental components: a) laws to define minimum standards of behavior between nations; b) courts to determine if laws have been violated and to serve as a forum for punishment; and c) a system of effective enforcement. He proposes a management agency to enforce arms control, alternative means of sanctioning, and social justice. Furthermore, he urges concern for everyone everywhere, so that a combination of legal and moral can achieve these structures of peace. Ferencz claims that we already have the beginnings of the process of international law with concepts developed at Nuremberg, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the Law of the Sea. He encourages acceleration of this process and reminds the audience to remember the strength and inspiration of Neil Armstrong who upon landing on the moon said, "We come in peace for all mankind." Following the lecture, Porter praises Ferencz for his interconnectedness and encouragement. She says, "I personally am encouraged by your presence on this planet."

Ferencz lecture: Fourth Freedom Forum

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Host: Jeff Richmond. Includes segments of interview with Benjamin Ferencz, among others. The Fourth Freedom Forum, an organization devoted to securing the fourth freedom (freedom from fear) through a worldwide reduction of armaments, developed this film to describe a new approach to defense: The Civilized Defense Plan. It creates a way of living that respects the lives of others and uses economic power to maintain world peace. Participants include: a) Lloyd J. Dumas, Professor of Political Economics, University of Texas; b) Carla Johnston, Executive Director of New Century Politics; d) Paul Walker, co-director of the Institute for Peace and International Security; e) Michael Clossen, Director of the Center for Economic Conversion; and e) Benjamin Ferencz. Ferencz discusses the principal role (obligation) the United States should play in this vein as a democratic, the wealthiest, and most powerful nation in the world. He explains that economic sanctions must consider the basic needs for human dignity and sustenance. Also, Ferencz expresses the need for agreement among powerful nations to accept a regime which is guided by international law, a system of international courts, and a system of more effective enforcement. Such components will help develop rational structure and a peaceful world. He insists upon thinking in planetary terms. Finally, Ferencz stresses the reality of an interdependent global community that will refine, implement, enable, change, and build the future. Screen quote by Albert Einstein reads: "Past thinking and methods did not succeed in preventing world wars. Future thinking must prevent wars...."

Program on United Nations, peace, and nuclear arms

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Presented by The Center for War/Peace Studies. Host: Richard Hudson. Program proposes a "binding triad system" to deal with international conflicts. Includes a weighted voting system in the General Assembly of the United Nations: 1) one nation, one vote; 2) population; 3) financial contributions. This would allow support from the most nations, the most people, and the greatest economic and political powers in the world. Additionally, the Center proposes binding resolutions in the General Assembly for peacekeeping forces and economic sanctions. Conferences in New York with many diplomats simulated application of the "binding triad" to world problems. The aim was to arrive at politically balanced resolutions for problems at hand. Hudson closes the program reminding viewers that "mutual interest must build a rational global system of decision-making if the world is really going to be able to lay down its arms and have nations coexist under a planetary regime that can offer the world peace and justice."

Ferencz discusses war crimes and Yugoslavia

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Canadian Broadcasting Company, Prime Time News. Yugoslavia: War Crimes Tribunal. Discussion among host, Benjamin Ferencz, and Major General Lewis Mackenzie, United Nations Commander in Sarajevo, about the legal and political problems of establishing an international war crimes tribunal in Yugoslavia. Ferencz speaks about the precedents of Nuremberg: 1) war crimes; 2) crimes against humanity; and 3) crimes against peace. He relates the two experiences, declaring the existence of war crimes in Yugoslavia. Ferencz argues that it should be simple to obtain conviction in Yugoslavia as overwhelming and massive evidence is available. Mackenzie indicates that we "must put the marker down somewhere and there's no better place to start than Bosnia." Ferencz agrees, asking how much the world is willing to take: "It's not time to just wring our hands, we've got to start to wring some necks!"

Ferencz discusses war crimes and Sadam Hussein

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A BBC Production, aired March, 1991. Includes segments of interview with Benjamin Ferencz, among others. Program asks whether or not Sadam Hussein should be brought to justice. Ferencz speaks about enforcing the principles founded at the Nuremberg trials, including laws that define 1) planning and waging a war of aggression; 2) war crimes; and 3) crimes against humanity. In Sadam Hussein's case, these standards were violated and are going unpunished. He says that we cannot walk away from the horrors of Sadam, or else we will encourage more strife: "We should get serious about this!" Because the world too often does nothing, international structure weakens. Another participant, a British prosecutor at Nuremberg, claims that this is the "last chance" to set up an international criminal court. If not established, he says we can "say goodbye to waging war as an international crime." Ferencz asserts that the ramifications of political expediency threaten any sense of justice. In closing, he proclaims that by ignoring criminality we are encouraging criminality. The next step to outlaw war, then, is an international court of criminal jurisdiction. Ferencz quote at beginning of program: "Should he be tried? That's like asking should any murderer be tried, or should any rapist be tried, or should any arsonist be tried. Of course he should be tried, if you believe in law and order."

Program on peace and nuclear arms

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Presented by the Center for Defense Information and Paul Newman. Narrated by Paul Newman. Program suggests that humans direct all resources towards creating a future safe from the threat of nuclear devastation. It argues for a comprehensive test ban to stop nuclear production and probable explosion. Finally, Newman urges the public to act, to have Reagan put a test ban on the negotiating table, and to make a step toward reason, and hence, a step away from war. Eisenhower quote rolling on screen at end of program: "...people in the long run are going to do more to promote peace than governments. Indeed, I think that people want peace so much that one of these days, governments had better get out of the way and let them have it."

Ferencz lecture: First Unitarian Congregation

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Lecture: "Peace, Planethood, and World Law: A Roadmap to the Future" First Unitarian Congregation of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. Text scroll: "Benjamin Ferencz has dedicated a good portion of his life seeking a just and tranquil world society where all may live in peace and dignity, regardless of race or creed. He is a graduate of the Harvard Law School and saw active military service in World War II where he participated in the liberation of several Nazi concentration camps. At the age of 27, he became the chief prosecutor for the US in the Nuremberg War Crimes Trial. During this trial he created legal precedents for crimes against humanity. Dr. Ferencz is an accredited non-governmental observer at the United Nations and is an adjunct professor of international law at Pace University, New York." Ferencz speaks about his involvement in war and subsequent experience at Nuremberg, claiming that "most of my life is influenced by what I experienced as a result of entering the concentration camps and dealing with criminals." He identifies a human problem--a failure of the human spirit--and practical ways to create a peaceful world. The three fundamental principles, which must be effective, include 1) laws, which define what is permissable and not permissable; 2) courts, to determine if laws have been violated or to serve as a forum for settling disputes by peaceful means; and 3) a system of effective enforcement. He calls for an end to international anarchy (in his terms, "Wild West") and sovereignty. Ferencz suggests that the audience embrace a vision of where the world is going, educate for peace, not be intimidated by leaders of the peace process, and to individually do something to save the world. A question and answer period follows, including commentary on the "inevitable" effective interaction between states for global management.

Ferencz discusses reunification of Germany

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One Germany. Host: Steven Roberts, US News and World Report, CBS News Nightwatch. Segment includes discussion among Roberts, Ambassador Jonathan Dean, US officer of the High Command in Germany who helped establish new German armed forces, Henry Kellerman, director of the office of German Public Affairs at the State Department in the early 1950s, and Benjamin Ferencz, prosecutor of Nazi war crime trials. The men discuss Germany as a single sovereign state. Topics include the causes that created a divided Germany, economic and social dislocation, reeducation of East Germany, democracy, and the importance in rebuilding European community. All did not expect unification in their lifetime. Ferencz quote excerpted at beginning of segment: "I think the unification will lead to a united Europe more than a united Germany. I think the idea of a German nation-state which threatened its neighbors, which existed in the past, I think that's finished."

Ferencz discusses slave labor

Film

A BBC Production, aired November 11, 1990, 10:05 PM. Includes segments of interview with Benjamin Ferencz, among others. British Prisoners of War who worked for the German company I.G. Farben now want compensation for their years as slave laborers. After the war Farben was forced to sell its assets, so the question of compensation was impossible. But since the unification of Germany Farben has been trying to re-claim lost assets estimated at two billion pounds. Joan Bakewell investigates the POWs hopes for compensation. Ferencz tells of the absence of a Nuremberg trial on behalf of the British POWs. In terms of claiming compensation, Ferencz argues that from a moral and human point of view, anyone injured should be entitled to compensation ("that is a fundamental law"). He claims, however, that what is "legally possible" in a court in Germany is different from what is "morally desirable." With the reunification of Germany, Ferencz declares compensation an open issue and urges individuals to file claims. Ferencz explains the typical position taken by companies involved in slave labor claims: Factory: It never happened; BF: Here are documents; Factory: Working conditions were fine. They were better than other camps. We saved their lives, so why do we have to compensate them? Ferencz concludes asking the German goverment to be fair.

Panel discussion moderated by Ferencz

Film

American Society of International Law. 77th annual meeting. Washington, DC. April 13-16, 1983. Panel discussion including: a) Paul Szasz, principal officer of the Office of Legal Advisor of the United Nations; b) Robert Rosenstock, US Representative on 6th Legal Committee of the United Nations; c) Anthony D'amato, Northwestern University professor; d) Alan Gerson, special assistant to J. Kirkpatrick at the United Nations; e) Ved Nanda. Benjamin Ferencz is the moderator. Panelists evaluate the aspirations of the United Nations, the realities today, and the possibilities for the future. Ferencz comments that all nations need to be willing to compromise and enforce together the principles of a United Nations covenant and charter. Moving in this evolutionary process will, according to Ferencz, allow humans to "win the race between civilization and disaster." A question and answer period follows.

Ferencz interviewed by Dr. Nada Monjoletti

Film

Radio interview with Benjamin Ferencz. Host: Dr. Nada Monjoletti. WFAS-AM 1230 Ferencz discusses his book "Planethood" and how to manage the planet so that all humans can live in peace and dignity. He urges the public to think in planetary terms rather than nationalistic terms for world peace. Ferencz outlines three fundamental components to international law and order that parallel the three branches of government employed in the US: a) laws that define the minimum standards of behavior among nations; b) courts to determine if standards are violated and to serve as a forum in which differences can be settled; and c) a system of effective enforcement. He claims that absolute state sovereignty is obsolete, as was discovered by Americans when forming the United States with thirteen different colonies. Ferencz demands education and perseverance to inspire change and promote peace. Furthermore, he identifies the need to curb instruments of mass destruction in this nuclear age. Listeners ask questions during the interview.

Ferencz lecture for Pat Gross of BBC

Film

Ferencz delivers a private lecture to Pat Gross of BBC. He discusses the precedents created during the Nuremberg Trials: 1) aggression is a crime against peace; 2) crimes against humanity, those that literally shock the conscience of humankind; 3) war crimes, codified in the Hague (1885-1907) and accepted at Nuremberg. Ferencz expresses concern that these principles, that were intended to bring about rational law and order, have been ignored. Aggression continues, genocide continues, and war crimes prevail at all sides. Ferencz urges that we move towards a more rational and humane society through interdependence, respect, and international law.

Ferencz interviewed by Michael Krasny

Film

Radio interview with Benjamin Ferencz. Host: Michael Krasny. KGO (ABC news) Krasny introduces Ferencz as a modest, humble, and witty man who strives for world peace approximated through international law. He summarizes Ferencz's worldview by reading directly from his "Common Sense Guide to World Peace" (1985): we need "...a permanent council of peace composed of renowned thinkers, spiritual, community, and business leaders free of the ideological biases that block solutions to many international problems. Its task would be to mobilize world opinion by disseminating its proposals thorugh all of the modern means of communciation as well as through the many institutions dedicated to a tranquil world." Krasny challenges Ferencz with skepticism that sovereignty and disarmament are surmountable. Ferencz disagrees completely, claiming that the world is moving in the right direction towards peace. He explains the beginnings of international law that were established at Nuremberg and subsequently through various peace treaties. Ferencz stresses planetary interdependence and the need to change old habits in order to prevent destruction. Finally, he urges involvement from the public. Listeners ask questions during the interview.

Ferencz interview on CNBC on war crimes

Film

CNBC News interview with Benjamin Ferencz. Host: Boyd ? "A war crimes trial should be in Saddam's future." Ferencz argues that Saddam Hussein should be punished in an international court of law. However, he notes, without a system of international law and order, we cannot condemn an international crime. Ferencz encourages the public to express intolerance of violations of law, so that the "rule of law can apply to everyone." He also urges the international arena to agree upon and define aggression.

Ferencz lecture: Unitarian Forum

Film

Final lecture in the 1986 series, Unitarian Forum, San Francisco. Practical Programs for Peace. Benjamin Ferencz speaks about the evolution of the concept of world law, the role of the US constitution at Nuremberg, using law as the instrument for protection of peace, and what people can do today to effect peace. Ferencz emphasizes the need for social justice. He indicates law, courts, and enforcement as critical to the peace process. Responding to a question near the end of the session, Ferencz says, "It's my conviction that if humankind has the intelligence to develop the means of destroying humankind, surely we must have the intelligence to develop the means of preventing it from happening."

Ferencz interviewed by Morris B. Abram

Film

Radio interview with Benjamin Ferencz. Host: Morris B. Abram, former president of the American Jewish Committee and US Representative to the UN Commission of Human Rights. Program presented by the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. Ferencz speaks about his book on Jewish forced labor during World War II, "Less Than Slaves" (1979). He describes the Nazi program of Vernichtung durch Arbeit [destruction through work], German industry, victims' guilt of employment, the 1951 McCloy clemency act, and the search for reparations for victims. Ferencz argues that most German industrialists denied involvement after the war, explaining that they employed few, that they were forced, that conditions were good, or that they saved lives. In fact, as Ferencz shows through historical documentation, in order to get labor from concentration camps, German industrialists had to engage in a complicated and elaborate application process. His book tries to deal with the philosophical and moral problems of guilt while inspiring compassion. Abram calls the book "thoroughly fascinating" and one ripe with moral lessons.

Ferencz lecture: World Federalist Association of Pittsburgh

Film

Ferencz explains his involvement in world peace and international law. He describes the mentality of the defendents he prosecuted at Nuremberg as well as his legal quest for compensation for survivors. Ferencz claims that world peace can be achieved through a common sense plan that includes laws, courts, and enforcement. He reminds the audience of the dramatic transformation and progress of the twentieth century, that are, according to Ferencz, the beginnings of international law of the world. Ferencz identifies the need for disarmament and social justice to move to a world of caring and sharing. Furthermore, he describes what each individual can do to promote peace and stability. Finally, Ferencz argues that the only security will be in a rational world structure where the power and ability to use force will be controlled by an international body and not left to each sovereign state.

Docu-drama on the Nuremberg trials

Film

Stanley Kramer's docu-drama examining Nazism and the Nuremberg Trials.

Ferencz: German industry, slave labor, compensation

Film

Audio recording of the German television program "Vernichtung durch Arbeit" that aired November 1984. Program is based on Benjamin Ferencz's authoritative book on slave labor: "Less Than Slaves," Harvard University Press, 1979. The book deals with the Nazi program of Vernichtung durch Arbeit [destruction through work] in which millions were coerced into labor by German industrialists for the Nazi war machine. The book also explains the quest of survivors to get compensation from the West German government. TAPE 1, 2 SIDES.

Ferencz lecture: United Nations Day 1989

Film

Ferencz describes his optimistic worldview to achieve world peace. He discusses his involvement at Nuremberg, in spearheading restitution programs in Germany, writing the authoritative book on Jewish forced labor, "Less Than Slaves" (1979), and in speaking to various groups of people about his unique structures for peace. Ferencz argues that a system of law, courts, and enforcement needs to be introduced and implemented in the international arena. He urges public involvement on every level.

Ferencz lecture: Temple Habonim

Film

Ferencz lectures on the question of atonement and what we can learn both from sin and compassion. He speaks about his involvement at Nuremberg, liberating concentration camps, and opening files and archives to help others recover heirless property. He praises Konrad Adenauer for helping to find atonement in proclaiming in 1951 that terrible crimes have been committed in the name of the German people and imposes upon them the duties and obligation to make moral and material amends. Ferencz identifies the need to reconstruct Jewish life in light of loss. Finally, he espouses the theological concept of repentance for guilt. A question and answer period follows.

Ferencz lecture: Unitarian Forum

Film

Final lecture in the 1986 series, Unitarian Forum, San Francisco. Practical Programs for Peace. Benjamin Ferencz speaks about the evolution of the concept of world law, the role of the US constitution at Nuremberg, using law as the instrument for protection of peace, and what people can do today to effect peace. Ferencz emphasizes the need for social justice. He indicates law, courts, and enforcement as critical to the peace process. Responding to a question near the end of the session, Ferencz says, "It's my conviction that if humankind has the intelligence to develop the means of destroying humankind, surely we must have the intelligence to develop the means of preventing it from happening."

War crimes discussion

Film

Discussion of crimes against humanity and prosecuting Nazi war criminals today.

Peace leadership speech by Lange

Film

Audio recording of David Lange's speech after accepting the Distinguished Peace Leadership award. Annually, the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation gives the prestigious distinguished peace leadership award to an individual who has demonstrated dedicated and courageous leadership in the causes of peace. In 1988, Hon. David Lange, the prime minister of New Zealand, received the award for his country's anti-nuclear status.

Program on peace and feminism

Film

Presented by the Academy award-winning filmmaker Vivienne Verdon-Roe. Taped for Red Mt. Productions at the Choices for the Future Symposium, June 1987, Windstar Foundation. Program discusses nuclear war, peace, and feminism. Verdon-Roe urges the public to care for each other and the security of the world. She wants to move people to lives of compassion, involvement, and knowledge. Rolling text at end of program: "Please help spread the message. Show our videos to your friends and family. Give them a present."

Interview by Michael Krasny

Film

Radio interview with Soli Similani (sp?), representative of the African National Congress to the United Nations. Host: Michael Krasny. KGO (ABC news)

Keith Suter interviewed by Clare McNamara

Film

Interview with Keith Suter. Host: Clare McNamara Suter discusses war crimes, Nicaragua, South Africa, economic sanctions, atomic diplomacy, and conflict resolution.

Ferencz discusses Less Than Slaves

Film

Video missing (was not sent by B. Ferencz with rest of the collection).

Keith Suter interviewed by Clare McNamara

Film

Interview with Dr. Keith Suter from the Trinity Peace Research Institute. Host: Clare McNamara Suter discusses immigration and the refugee program, United Nations reform, world citizenship, World Federation, Miskito Indians, and the US election.

Peace program on 20/20 Vision

Film

Tips for Concerned Citizens and Peace Activists: New Strategies for the "Selling" of Peace in the 90s. Program presented by 20/20 Vision organization. Hosts: Bob Abrams and Lois Barber. Program provides tips and strategies to leverage effectiveness of efforts on behalf of world peace. Barber, a "repository of wisdom and experience in influencing people to take action on peace and national security issues," outlines several ideas: 1) start where people are and do good listening; 2) personalize the impact of their issues; 3) make action meaningful; 4) address something in their attention span; 5) allow action to be something they can succeed at; 6) create easy and convenient ways to be involved; 7) provide feedback; and 8) if ideas are in the majority (like the peace movement), realize that action has power in numbers. Abrams suggests reading Benjamin Ferencz's book "Planethood" for its inspirational and practical approach to the process of world peace. He praises Ferencz for his pragmatic way to restructure the way we function internationally. Barber calls his message clearly thought out and an effective plan to achieve peace.

Ferencz lecture: Rotary Club of Toronto

Film

Ferencz speaks about his book "Less Than Slaves" (1979) that explains how German industrialists could become accomplices to the exploitation of people for the sole purpose of working them to death. He discusses the principles established at Nuremberg, including the crime of aggressive war and crimes against humanity, and expresses his hope for an international criminal court. Three essential mechanisms that would reverse the "international anarchy" of today and provide a world for all humans to live in peace and dignity are laws, courts, and a system of effective enforcement. He stresses the reality of the United Nations and also recognizes its critical place in the formation of interdependence and global management. Ferencz mentions the role Canada has played and can play in the future to lead the way to peace. Specifically, he identifies Canadian dedication to peace, fraternity, and support and, finally, he encourages involvement.

Second Global Structures Convocation lecture by Ferencz

Film

Lecture, "Creating Global Structures for Agenda 21." Second Global Structures Convocation, Washington, DC. February 6-9, 1992. ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT (tape 10 in conference series) Introduction by Robert Livingston, president of Positions for Social Responsibility. Second introduction by Catherine Porter, executive director of US Citizens Network. Ferencz discusses new structures needed to create a more peaceful planet. Broad frameworks include a world community that is environmentally healthy, free from war, and economically sound. He argues for coordinated action on an international basis. To achieve this linked global structure, Ferencz introduces three fundamental components: a) laws to define minimum standards of behavior between nations; b) courts to determine if laws have been violated and to serve as a forum for punishment; and c) a system of effective enforcement. He proposes a management agency to enforce arms control, alternative means of sanctioning, and social justice. Furthermore, he urges concern for everyone everywhere, so that a combination of legal and moral can achieve these structures of peace. Ferencz claims that we already have the beginnings of the process of international law with concepts developed at Nuremberg, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the Law of the Sea. He encourages acceleration of this process and reminds the audience to remember the strength and inspiration of Neil Armstrong who upon landing on the moon said, "We come in peace for all mankind." Following the lecture, Porter praises Ferencz for his interconnectedness and encouragement. She says, "I personally am encouraged by your presence on this planet."

Program on war

Film

Presented by the National Film Board of Canada. Gwynne Dyer, a journalist, military historian, and officer of three Navies, presents his commentary on the evolution of modern war. Tape includes episodes 1, 4, 5, 6, 7. 1: "The Road to Total War," describes what war has become and traces the road that led the great powers to the concept of total war, 00:00:55 to 00:58:08. Director: Barbara Seals. Producer: Barbara Seals. Cinematographer: Bonnie Andrukaitis; Simon Leblanc; Michael Mahoney; Serge Lafortune. 4: "The Deadly Game of Nations," explains the reasons why people support governments that maintain armies and prepare for war (why governments depend on armed forces to exist as independent states), 00:59:08 to 01:56:20. Director: Paul Cowan. Producer: Barrie Howells; Bill Brind; John Kramer. Cinematographer: Michael Mahoney. 5: "Keeping the Old Game Alive," shows how the next great war could begin in the borderlands guarded by NATO and evaluates the chances that NATO can still fight a limited conventional war in Europe, 01:59:05 to 02:56:43. Director: Douglas Kiefer. Producer: Douglas Kiefer. Cinematographer: Simon Leblanc; Andy Kitzanuk; Bonnie Andrukaitis; Michael Mahoney; Al Morgan. 6: "Notes on Nuclear War," looks at the buildup of nuclear arms and the delivery systems for these hydrogen bombs and evaluates the chances that the nuclear stalemate will become nuclear war, 02:59:09 to 03:56:42. Director: Tina Viljoen. Producer: Tina Viljoen; Michael Bryans. Cinematographer: Michael Mahoney; Al Morgan; Serge Lafortune; Simon Leblanc. 7: "Goodbye War," asks the question is war between the great powers obsolete, 03:59:08 to 04:56:39. Director: Donna Dudinsky; Judith Merritt. Producer: Barrie Howells; Bill Brind; John Kramer. Cinematographer: Michael Mahoney; Al Morgan; Nash Read.

Ferencz: German industry, slave labor, compensation

Film

Audio recording of the German television program "Vernichtung durch Arbeit" that aired November 1984. Program is based on Benjamin Ferencz's authoritative book on slave labor: "Less Than Slaves," Harvard University Press, 1979. The book deals with the Nazi program of Vernichtung durch Arbeit [destruction through work] in which millions were coerced into labor by German industrialists for the Nazi war machine. The book also explains the quest of survivors to get compensation from the West German government. TAPE 2, 2 SIDES.

Program on the Bush administration, peace, and nuclear arms

Film

Host: Marvin Kalb. First aired during Election 1988 as part of the national security debate. Program discusses how the Bush administration could reduce the risk of nuclear war while maintaining national security. It assumes our greatest challenge is making sure that nuclear weapons are never used again. Program offers four policy options: 1) military superiority; 2) arms control; 3) building missile defenses; and 4) eliminating all nuclear weapons. The segment provokes discussion about the nuclear future.

Program on nuclear weapons

Film

Host: Carl Sagan. Guest: George Kistiakowsky (1900-1982), designed and built the chemical charge that triggered the first nuclear explosion. Sagan interviews Kistiakowsky about his involvement in nuclear weapons. Program discusses the history of the nuclear arms race and the "grave threat" of the human future. Kistiakowsky says that a nuclear war is probable and that only our efforts will help stop it.

Ferencz lecture: Structures for a Peace Convocation

Film

Structures for a Peace Convocation conference, Washington, DC. Lecture: "What Structures Can Save the Environment, Promote Development, and Insure Human Rights?" Presider: Rev. Donald Harrington. Benjamin Ferencz states the principles established at Nuremberg: a) aggressive war is a crime; and b) crimes against humanity are punishable by law. He claims that world peace is "not so complicated" and calls for "world government" to enable international law and order. He reminds the audience to embrace our progress. Finally, Ferencz urges the public to favor time, compromise, and a willingness of spirit and to "Speak Up!" for peace. Ferencz provides free copies of his "Planethood: The Key to your Survival and Prosperity" (1988) to conference participants.

Ferencz lecture: Unitarian Forum

Film

Final lecture in the 1986 series, Unitarian Forum, San Francisco. Practical Programs for Peace. Benjamin Ferencz speaks about the evolution of the concept of world law, the role of the US constitution at Nuremberg, using law as the instrument for protection of peace, and what people can do today to effect peace. Ferencz emphasizes the need for social justice. He indicates law, courts, and enforcement as critical to the peace process. Responding to a question near the end of the session, Ferencz says, "It's my conviction that if humankind has the intelligence to develop the means of destroying humankind, surely we must have the intelligence to develop the means of preventing it from happening."

Program on peace and nuclear arms

Film

Narrated by Bill Kurtis. Rolling text at start of program: "I've recently returned from the Soviet Union after spending six months there. If all goes well, we'll be out of the woods in a few years as far as the danger of nuclear war is concerned. But it could go dreadfully wrong. And we now live in the most unstable period we have ever seen since 1945....The possibility of a right wing coup d'etat, even of civil war in the Soviet Union cannot be excluded. The ultra conservative regime that would emrege would need foreign enemies. And this is still a nation with thousands of nuclear weapons that could all too easily be put on a hairtrigger." --Gwynne Dyer, nationally renowned military historian and creator of the PBS "War Series," winter 1990. Program discusses the hows and whys of the fatal wonder of nuclear accident and precautions to take. Could we actually lose control of the nuclear game? And how, and what can we do to prevent it? The questions raised are considered urgent. The program intends to stimulate further hope, growth, and conversation on how to have a world free from the threat of nuclear war.

Ferencz lecture: Unitarian Forum

Film

Final lecture in the 1986 series, Unitarian Forum, San Francisco. Practical Programs for Peace. Benjamin Ferencz speaks about the evolution of the concept of world law, the role of the US constitution at Nuremberg, using law as the instrument for protection of peace, and what people can do today to effect peace. Ferencz emphasizes the need for social justice. He indicates law, courts, and enforcement as critical to the peace process. Responding to a question near the end of the session, Ferencz says, "It's my conviction that if humankind has the intelligence to develop the means of destroying humankind, surely we must have the intelligence to develop the means of preventing it from happening."

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