Oral history interview with Steven J. Fenves

Oral history interview with Jacques Fein

Oral History

Jacques Fein (né Karpik), born in October 1938 in Paris, France, discusses his parents Rojza Taszynowicz and Szmul Karpik, who were Polish Jews and had immigrated to Paris in the 1930s; his younger sister Annette (born in August 1940); his father’s work as a tailor; the German occupation of France in 1940; the Oeuvres de Secours aux Enfants (OSE) helping to protect and hide Jacques and Annette; being placed with his sister in the home of Marcel and Suzanne Bocahut, a Catholic family in the Paris suburb Vert-Galant (now a district of Villepinte); the deportation of his father to Pithiviers and then Auschwitz, where he was murdered in 1942; the deportation of his mother to Drancy and then Auschwitz, where she was murdered; living with the Bocahut family for the remainder of the war; being baptized Catholic to avoid suspicion that he might be Jewish; the end of the war; being placed with his sister in OSE homes for displaced children, first in Les Roches in Normandy and then in Taverny outside of Paris; being adopted along with his sister by a Jewish American couple, Harry and Rose Fein; and going with their adopted family to the United States in October 1948.

Oral history interview with Jacques Fein

Oral History

Jacques Fein (né Karpik), born in October 1938 in Paris, France, discusses his parents Rojza Taszynowicz and Szmul Karpik, who were Polish Jews and had immigrated to Paris in the 1930s; his younger sister Annette (born in August 1940); his father’s work as a tailor; the German occupation of France in 1940; the Oeuvres de Secours aux Enfants (OSE) helping to protect and hide Jacques and Annette; being placed with his sister in the home of Marcel and Suzanne Bocahut, a Catholic family in the Paris suburb Vert-Galant (now a district of Villepinte); the deportation of his father to Pithiviers and then Auschwitz, where he was murdered in 1942; the deportation of his mother to Drancy and then Auschwitz, where she was murdered; living with the Bocahut family for the remainder of the war; being baptized Catholic to avoid suspicion that he might be Jewish; the end of the war; being placed with his sister in OSE homes for displaced children, first in Les Roches in Normandy and then in Taverny outside of Paris; being adopted along with his sister by a Jewish American couple, Harry and Rose Fein; and going with their adopted family to the United States in October 1948.

Oral history interview with Jacques Fein

Oral History

Jacques Fein (né Karpik), born in October 1938 in Paris, France, discusses his parents Rojza Taszynowicz and Szmul Karpik, who were Polish Jews and had immigrated to Paris in the 1930s; his younger sister Annette (born in August 1940); his father’s work as a tailor; the German occupation of France in 1940; the Oeuvres de Secours aux Enfants (OSE) helping to protect and hide Jacques and Annette; being placed with his sister in the home of Marcel and Suzanne Bocahut, a Catholic family in the Paris suburb Vert-Galant (now a district of Villepinte); the deportation of his father to Pithiviers and then Auschwitz, where he was murdered in 1942; the deportation of his mother to Drancy and then Auschwitz, where she was murdered; living with the Bocahut family for the remainder of the war; being baptized Catholic to avoid suspicion that he might be Jewish; the end of the war; being placed with his sister in OSE homes for displaced children, first in Les Roches in Normandy and then in Taverny outside of Paris; being adopted along with his sister by a Jewish American couple, Harry and Rose Fein; and going with their adopted family to the United States in October 1948.

Oral history interview with Jacques Fein

Oral History

Jacques Fein (né Karpik), born in October 1938 in Paris, France, discusses his parents Rojza Taszynowicz and Szmul Karpik, who were Polish Jews and had immigrated to Paris in the 1930s; his younger sister Annette (born in August 1940); his father’s work as a tailor; the German occupation of France in 1940; the Oeuvres de Secours aux Enfants (OSE) helping to protect and hide Jacques and Annette; being placed with his sister in the home of Marcel and Suzanne Bocahut, a Catholic family in the Paris suburb Vert-Galant (now a district of Villepinte); the deportation of his father to Pithiviers and then Auschwitz, where he was murdered in 1942; the deportation of his mother to Drancy and then Auschwitz, where she was murdered; living with the Bocahut family for the remainder of the war; being baptized Catholic to avoid suspicion that he might be Jewish; the end of the war; being placed with his sister in OSE homes for displaced children, first in Les Roches in Normandy and then in Taverny outside of Paris; being adopted along with his sister by a Jewish American couple, Harry and Rose Fein; and going with their adopted family to the United States in October 1948.

Oral history interview with Jacques Fein

Oral History

Jacques Fein (né Karpik), born in October 1938 in Paris, France, discusses his parents Rojza Taszynowicz and Szmul Karpik, who were Polish Jews and had immigrated to Paris in the 1930s; his younger sister Annette (born in August 1940); his father’s work as a tailor; the German occupation of France in 1940; the Oeuvres de Secours aux Enfants (OSE) helping to protect and hide Jacques and Annette; being placed with his sister in the home of Marcel and Suzanne Bocahut, a Catholic family in the Paris suburb Vert-Galant (now a district of Villepinte); the deportation of his father to Pithiviers and then Auschwitz, where he was murdered in 1942; the deportation of his mother to Drancy and then Auschwitz, where she was murdered; living with the Bocahut family for the remainder of the war; being baptized Catholic to avoid suspicion that he might be Jewish; the end of the war; being placed with his sister in OSE homes for displaced children, first in Les Roches in Normandy and then in Taverny outside of Paris; being adopted along with his sister by a Jewish American couple, Harry and Rose Fein; and going with their adopted family to the United States in October 1948.

Oral history interview with Jacques Fein

Oral History

Jacques Fein (né Karpik), born in October 1938 in Paris, France, discusses his parents Rojza Taszynowicz and Szmul Karpik, who were Polish Jews and had immigrated to Paris in the 1930s; his younger sister Annette (born in August 1940); his father’s work as a tailor; the German occupation of France in 1940; the Oeuvres de Secours aux Enfants (OSE) helping to protect and hide Jacques and Annette; being placed with his sister in the home of Marcel and Suzanne Bocahut, a Catholic family in the Paris suburb Vert-Galant (now a district of Villepinte); the deportation of his father to Pithiviers and then Auschwitz, where he was murdered in 1942; the deportation of his mother to Drancy and then Auschwitz, where she was murdered; living with the Bocahut family for the remainder of the war; being baptized Catholic to avoid suspicion that he might be Jewish; the end of the war; being placed with his sister in OSE homes for displaced children, first in Les Roches in Normandy and then in Taverny outside of Paris; being adopted along with his sister by a Jewish American couple, Harry and Rose Fein; and going with their adopted family to the United States in October 1948.

Oral history interview with Theodora Basch Vrančić Klayman

Oral History

Theodora Klayman (née Teodora Rahela Basch), born on January 31, 1938 in Zagreb, Yugoslavia (now in Croatia), discusses her family (her father Salamon owned and operated a small brush manufacturing plant); the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 while Teodora and her infant brother (Zdravko) were visiting their extended family in Ludbreg, Croatia; Croatia coming under the control of the Ustaša (a fascist group collaborating with the Nazis); the deportation of her father and mother to the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiska concentration camps, respectively; being sheltered along with Zdravko by their grandparents; staying with their aunt Giza and her Catholic husband Ludva, after most of the Jews were deported; avoiding arrest by taking a train to a nearby town or spending a few days at a time with different neighbors; how in 1943 Giza was denounced, arrested, and deported to Auschwitz; Ludva’s attempts to have Giza released (Giza died from an intestinal illness soon after her arrival in Auschwitz); hiding while Ludva was away with their neighbors and pretending to be their children; how most people in Ludbreg knew the children were Jewish, but they were never denounced; being raised by Ludva after the war; and the death of Zdravko from scarlet fever. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Theodora Basch Vrančić Klayman

Oral History

Theodora Klayman (née Teodora Rahela Basch), born on January 31, 1938 in Zagreb, Yugoslavia (now in Croatia), discusses her family (her father Salamon owned and operated a small brush manufacturing plant); the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 while Teodora and her infant brother (Zdravko) were visiting their extended family in Ludbreg, Croatia; Croatia coming under the control of the Ustaša (a fascist group collaborating with the Nazis); the deportation of her father and mother to the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiska concentration camps, respectively; being sheltered along with Zdravko by their grandparents; staying with their aunt Giza and her Catholic husband Ludva, after most of the Jews were deported; avoiding arrest by taking a train to a nearby town or spending a few days at a time with different neighbors; how in 1943 Giza was denounced, arrested, and deported to Auschwitz; Ludva’s attempts to have Giza released (Giza died from an intestinal illness soon after her arrival in Auschwitz); hiding while Ludva was away with their neighbors and pretending to be their children; how most people in Ludbreg knew the children were Jewish, but they were never denounced; being raised by Ludva after the war; and the death of Zdravko from scarlet fever. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Theodora Basch Vrančić Klayman

Oral History

Theodora Klayman (née Teodora Rahela Basch), born on January 31, 1938 in Zagreb, Yugoslavia (now in Croatia), discusses her family (her father Salamon owned and operated a small brush manufacturing plant); the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 while Teodora and her infant brother (Zdravko) were visiting their extended family in Ludbreg, Croatia; Croatia coming under the control of the Ustaša (a fascist group collaborating with the Nazis); the deportation of her father and mother to the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiska concentration camps, respectively; being sheltered along with Zdravko by their grandparents; staying with their aunt Giza and her Catholic husband Ludva, after most of the Jews were deported; avoiding arrest by taking a train to a nearby town or spending a few days at a time with different neighbors; how in 1943 Giza was denounced, arrested, and deported to Auschwitz; Ludva’s attempts to have Giza released (Giza died from an intestinal illness soon after her arrival in Auschwitz); hiding while Ludva was away with their neighbors and pretending to be their children; how most people in Ludbreg knew the children were Jewish, but they were never denounced; being raised by Ludva after the war; and the death of Zdravko from scarlet fever. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Theodora Basch Vrančić Klayman

Oral History

Theodora Klayman (née Teodora Rahela Basch), born on January 31, 1938 in Zagreb, Yugoslavia (now in Croatia), discusses her family (her father Salamon owned and operated a small brush manufacturing plant); the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 while Teodora and her infant brother (Zdravko) were visiting their extended family in Ludbreg, Croatia; Croatia coming under the control of the Ustaša (a fascist group collaborating with the Nazis); the deportation of her father and mother to the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiska concentration camps, respectively; being sheltered along with Zdravko by their grandparents; staying with their aunt Giza and her Catholic husband Ludva, after most of the Jews were deported; avoiding arrest by taking a train to a nearby town or spending a few days at a time with different neighbors; how in 1943 Giza was denounced, arrested, and deported to Auschwitz; Ludva’s attempts to have Giza released (Giza died from an intestinal illness soon after her arrival in Auschwitz); hiding while Ludva was away with their neighbors and pretending to be their children; how most people in Ludbreg knew the children were Jewish, but they were never denounced; being raised by Ludva after the war; and the death of Zdravko from scarlet fever. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Theodora Basch Vrančić Klayman

Oral History

Theodora Klayman (née Teodora Rahela Basch), born on January 31, 1938 in Zagreb, Yugoslavia (now in Croatia), discusses her family (her father Salamon owned and operated a small brush manufacturing plant); the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 while Teodora and her infant brother (Zdravko) were visiting their extended family in Ludbreg, Croatia; Croatia coming under the control of the Ustaša (a fascist group collaborating with the Nazis); the deportation of her father and mother to the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiska concentration camps, respectively; being sheltered along with Zdravko by their grandparents; staying with their aunt Giza and her Catholic husband Ludva, after most of the Jews were deported; avoiding arrest by taking a train to a nearby town or spending a few days at a time with different neighbors; how in 1943 Giza was denounced, arrested, and deported to Auschwitz; Ludva’s attempts to have Giza released (Giza died from an intestinal illness soon after her arrival in Auschwitz); hiding while Ludva was away with their neighbors and pretending to be their children; how most people in Ludbreg knew the children were Jewish, but they were never denounced; being raised by Ludva after the war; and the death of Zdravko from scarlet fever. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Theodora Basch Vrančić Klayman

Oral History

Theodora Klayman (née Teodora Rahela Basch), born on January 31, 1938 in Zagreb, Yugoslavia (now in Croatia), discusses her family (her father Salamon owned and operated a small brush manufacturing plant); the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 while Teodora and her infant brother (Zdravko) were visiting their extended family in Ludbreg, Croatia; Croatia coming under the control of the Ustaša (a fascist group collaborating with the Nazis); the deportation of her father and mother to the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiska concentration camps, respectively; being sheltered along with Zdravko by their grandparents; staying with their aunt Giza and her Catholic husband Ludva, after most of the Jews were deported; avoiding arrest by taking a train to a nearby town or spending a few days at a time with different neighbors; how in 1943 Giza was denounced, arrested, and deported to Auschwitz; Ludva’s attempts to have Giza released (Giza died from an intestinal illness soon after her arrival in Auschwitz); hiding while Ludva was away with their neighbors and pretending to be their children; how most people in Ludbreg knew the children were Jewish, but they were never denounced; being raised by Ludva after the war; and the death of Zdravko from scarlet fever. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald L. Liebenau

Oral History

Gerald Liebenau, born on November 30, 1925 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his Jewish family; his father, who worked in the textile business; being the eldest of two children; his younger sister; attending public school until 1936 when Jewish children were forced to leave public schools; his family’s move in December 1938 to London, England; living in London for approximately one month as they waited for their visa numbers to be announced; immigrating to the United States with his family in February 1939; living in Scranton, Pennsylvania; moving a few years later to New London, Connecticut; finishing high school; joining the US Army; and spending one year in the infantry and one year in the Office of Strategic Services. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald L. Liebenau

Oral History

Gerald Liebenau, born on November 30, 1925 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his Jewish family; his father, who worked in the textile business; being the eldest of two children; his younger sister; attending public school until 1936 when Jewish children were forced to leave public schools; his family’s move in December 1938 to London, England; living in London for approximately one month as they waited for their visa numbers to be announced; immigrating to the United States with his family in February 1939; living in Scranton, Pennsylvania; moving a few years later to New London, Connecticut; finishing high school; joining the US Army; and spending one year in the infantry and one year in the Office of Strategic Services. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald L. Liebenau

Oral History

Gerald Liebenau, born on November 30, 1925 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his Jewish family; his father, who worked in the textile business; being the eldest of two children; his younger sister; attending public school until 1936 when Jewish children were forced to leave public schools; his family’s move in December 1938 to London, England; living in London for approximately one month as they waited for their visa numbers to be announced; immigrating to the United States with his family in February 1939; living in Scranton, Pennsylvania; moving a few years later to New London, Connecticut; finishing high school; joining the US Army; and spending one year in the infantry and one year in the Office of Strategic Services. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Charles Stein

Oral History

Charles Stein (né Karl Robert Stein), born on November 28, 1919 in Vienna, Austria, describes his family; his father, who was a printer; being admitted to medical school at the University of Vienna in 1937 and being prevented from his studies when the Germans arrived in Vienna on March 13, 1938; searching for a way to get out of Austria; leaving for Luxembourg in August 1938; immigrating to the United States; being drafed into the army in October 1941; training at Camp Ritchie in Maryland; going to Normandy, France with the 9th Infantry Division as the commander of a prisoner-of-war interrogation team; helping to liberate Nordhausen concentration camp; learning that his parents had been deported to the Łódź ghetto in 1941 and were killed in Chełmno on February 28, 1942; participating in the Korean War; and his work after the war with the Department of Defense and the Foreign Service. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Charles Stein

Oral History

Charles Stein (né Karl Robert Stein), born on November 28, 1919 in Vienna, Austria, describes his family; his father, who was a printer; being admitted to medical school at the University of Vienna in 1937 and being prevented from his studies when the Germans arrived in Vienna on March 13, 1938; searching for a way to get out of Austria; leaving for Luxembourg in August 1938; immigrating to the United States; being drafed into the army in October 1941; training at Camp Ritchie in Maryland; going to Normandy, France with the 9th Infantry Division as the commander of a prisoner-of-war interrogation team; helping to liberate Nordhausen concentration camp; learning that his parents had been deported to the Łódź ghetto in 1941 and were killed in Chełmno on February 28, 1942; participating in the Korean War; and his work after the war with the Department of Defense and the Foreign Service. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Charles Stein

Oral History

Charles Stein (né Karl Robert Stein), born on November 28, 1919 in Vienna, Austria, describes his family; his father, who was a printer; being admitted to medical school at the University of Vienna in 1937 and being prevented from his studies when the Germans arrived in Vienna on March 13, 1938; searching for a way to get out of Austria; leaving for Luxembourg in August 1938; immigrating to the United States; being drafed into the army in October 1941; training at Camp Ritchie in Maryland; going to Normandy, France with the 9th Infantry Division as the commander of a prisoner-of-war interrogation team; helping to liberate Nordhausen concentration camp; learning that his parents had been deported to the Łódź ghetto in 1941 and were killed in Chełmno on February 28, 1942; participating in the Korean War; and his work after the war with the Department of Defense and the Foreign Service. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Charles Stein

Oral History

Charles Stein (né Karl Robert Stein), born on November 28, 1919 in Vienna, Austria, describes his family; his father, who was a printer; being admitted to medical school at the University of Vienna in 1937 and being prevented from his studies when the Germans arrived in Vienna on March 13, 1938; searching for a way to get out of Austria; leaving for Luxembourg in August 1938; immigrating to the United States; being drafed into the army in October 1941; training at Camp Ritchie in Maryland; going to Normandy, France with the 9th Infantry Division as the commander of a prisoner-of-war interrogation team; helping to liberate Nordhausen concentration camp; learning that his parents had been deported to the Łódź ghetto in 1941 and were killed in Chełmno on February 28, 1942; participating in the Korean War; and his work after the war with the Department of Defense and the Foreign Service. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Charles Stein

Oral History

Charles Stein (né Karl Robert Stein), born on November 28, 1919 in Vienna, Austria, describes his family; his father, who was a printer; being admitted to medical school at the University of Vienna in 1937 and being prevented from his studies when the Germans arrived in Vienna on March 13, 1938; searching for a way to get out of Austria; leaving for Luxembourg in August 1938; immigrating to the United States; being drafed into the army in October 1941; training at Camp Ritchie in Maryland; going to Normandy, France with the 9th Infantry Division as the commander of a prisoner-of-war interrogation team; helping to liberate Nordhausen concentration camp; learning that his parents had been deported to the Łódź ghetto in 1941 and were killed in Chełmno on February 28, 1942; participating in the Korean War; and his work after the war with the Department of Defense and the Foreign Service. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Robert Behr

Oral History

Robert “Bob” Behr, born in 1922 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his family; his father Alfred, who was a real estate agent; his mother Lilly, who managed their household; his parents’ divorce when he was young; living with his mother and stepfather, Dr. Alfred Hamburger; the Nazis’ rise to power in 1933; the discrimination of Jews in Germany; attending a German-Jewish boarding school in Sweden until the school was forced to close; returning to Berlin; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938; the deportation of his father to Buchenwald; being evicted from their apartment; living in two rooms in an elderly Jewish woman’s apartment until 1942; the arrest of his mother and stepfather for helping their friend escape to Switzerland; his arrest a few day later; being sent with his family to Theresienstadt; his work in Theresienstadt, transporting bodies for burial and laying railroad tracks; working in the camp’s kitchen; protecting his parents from deportation to Auschwitz in early 1944 by volunteering to work on the new SS headquarters in Wulkow, Germany; returning to Theresienstadt in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on May 5, 1945; immigrating to the United States in 1947; enlisting in the US Army; being sent to Berlin, where he interrogated former Nazi personnel; leaving the army in 1952; and his work in Dayton, Ohio. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Robert Behr

Oral History

Robert “Bob” Behr, born in 1922 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his family; his father Alfred, who was a real estate agent; his mother Lilly, who managed their household; his parents’ divorce when he was young; living with his mother and stepfather, Dr. Alfred Hamburger; the Nazis’ rise to power in 1933; the discrimination of Jews in Germany; attending a German-Jewish boarding school in Sweden until the school was forced to close; returning to Berlin; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938; the deportation of his father to Buchenwald; being evicted from their apartment; living in two rooms in an elderly Jewish woman’s apartment until 1942; the arrest of his mother and stepfather for helping their friend escape to Switzerland; his arrest a few day later; being sent with his family to Theresienstadt; his work in Theresienstadt, transporting bodies for burial and laying railroad tracks; working in the camp’s kitchen; protecting his parents from deportation to Auschwitz in early 1944 by volunteering to work on the new SS headquarters in Wulkow, Germany; returning to Theresienstadt in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on May 5, 1945; immigrating to the United States in 1947; enlisting in the US Army; being sent to Berlin, where he interrogated former Nazi personnel; leaving the army in 1952; and his work in Dayton, Ohio. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Robert Behr

Oral History

Robert “Bob” Behr, born in 1922 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his family; his father Alfred, who was a real estate agent; his mother Lilly, who managed their household; his parents’ divorce when he was young; living with his mother and stepfather, Dr. Alfred Hamburger; the Nazis’ rise to power in 1933; the discrimination of Jews in Germany; attending a German-Jewish boarding school in Sweden until the school was forced to close; returning to Berlin; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938; the deportation of his father to Buchenwald; being evicted from their apartment; living in two rooms in an elderly Jewish woman’s apartment until 1942; the arrest of his mother and stepfather for helping their friend escape to Switzerland; his arrest a few day later; being sent with his family to Theresienstadt; his work in Theresienstadt, transporting bodies for burial and laying railroad tracks; working in the camp’s kitchen; protecting his parents from deportation to Auschwitz in early 1944 by volunteering to work on the new SS headquarters in Wulkow, Germany; returning to Theresienstadt in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on May 5, 1945; immigrating to the United States in 1947; enlisting in the US Army; being sent to Berlin, where he interrogated former Nazi personnel; leaving the army in 1952; and his work in Dayton, Ohio. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Robert Behr

Oral History

Robert “Bob” Behr, born in 1922 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his family; his father Alfred, who was a real estate agent; his mother Lilly, who managed their household; his parents’ divorce when he was young; living with his mother and stepfather, Dr. Alfred Hamburger; the Nazis’ rise to power in 1933; the discrimination of Jews in Germany; attending a German-Jewish boarding school in Sweden until the school was forced to close; returning to Berlin; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938; the deportation of his father to Buchenwald; being evicted from their apartment; living in two rooms in an elderly Jewish woman’s apartment until 1942; the arrest of his mother and stepfather for helping their friend escape to Switzerland; his arrest a few day later; being sent with his family to Theresienstadt; his work in Theresienstadt, transporting bodies for burial and laying railroad tracks; working in the camp’s kitchen; protecting his parents from deportation to Auschwitz in early 1944 by volunteering to work on the new SS headquarters in Wulkow, Germany; returning to Theresienstadt in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on May 5, 1945; immigrating to the United States in 1947; enlisting in the US Army; being sent to Berlin, where he interrogated former Nazi personnel; leaving the army in 1952; and his work in Dayton, Ohio. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Robert Behr

Oral History

Robert “Bob” Behr, born in 1922 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his family; his father Alfred, who was a real estate agent; his mother Lilly, who managed their household; his parents’ divorce when he was young; living with his mother and stepfather, Dr. Alfred Hamburger; the Nazis’ rise to power in 1933; the discrimination of Jews in Germany; attending a German-Jewish boarding school in Sweden until the school was forced to close; returning to Berlin; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938; the deportation of his father to Buchenwald; being evicted from their apartment; living in two rooms in an elderly Jewish woman’s apartment until 1942; the arrest of his mother and stepfather for helping their friend escape to Switzerland; his arrest a few day later; being sent with his family to Theresienstadt; his work in Theresienstadt, transporting bodies for burial and laying railroad tracks; working in the camp’s kitchen; protecting his parents from deportation to Auschwitz in early 1944 by volunteering to work on the new SS headquarters in Wulkow, Germany; returning to Theresienstadt in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on May 5, 1945; immigrating to the United States in 1947; enlisting in the US Army; being sent to Berlin, where he interrogated former Nazi personnel; leaving the army in 1952; and his work in Dayton, Ohio. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Robert Behr

Oral History

Robert “Bob” Behr, born in 1922 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his family; his father Alfred, who was a real estate agent; his mother Lilly, who managed their household; his parents’ divorce when he was young; living with his mother and stepfather, Dr. Alfred Hamburger; the Nazis’ rise to power in 1933; the discrimination of Jews in Germany; attending a German-Jewish boarding school in Sweden until the school was forced to close; returning to Berlin; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938; the deportation of his father to Buchenwald; being evicted from their apartment; living in two rooms in an elderly Jewish woman’s apartment until 1942; the arrest of his mother and stepfather for helping their friend escape to Switzerland; his arrest a few day later; being sent with his family to Theresienstadt; his work in Theresienstadt, transporting bodies for burial and laying railroad tracks; working in the camp’s kitchen; protecting his parents from deportation to Auschwitz in early 1944 by volunteering to work on the new SS headquarters in Wulkow, Germany; returning to Theresienstadt in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on May 5, 1945; immigrating to the United States in 1947; enlisting in the US Army; being sent to Berlin, where he interrogated former Nazi personnel; leaving the army in 1952; and his work in Dayton, Ohio. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

Oral History

Susan Warsinger, born on May 27, 1929 in Bad Kreuznach, Germany, discusses her childhood in Bad Kreuznach; being the eldest of three children; her father’s linen store; the rise of the Nazis; being forced with other Jewish children to leave the public school; her father having to close his business; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938 and the destruction of the windows and furnishings in their home; being smuggled to France along with her brother Joseph; the German occupation of France beginning in May 1940; being evacuated from a children’s home in Paris to Versailles, where they were temporarily housed in Louis XIV’s palace; fleeing with their guardians to the unoccupied part of the country controlled by the Vichy government; crossing the Pyrenees into Spain; receiving permission to immigrate to the United States with the help of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS); sailing with her brother from Lisbon, Portugal to New York, NY in September 1941; reuniting with their parents and younger brother; and settling in Washington, DC. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

Oral History

Susan Warsinger, born on May 27, 1929 in Bad Kreuznach, Germany, discusses her childhood in Bad Kreuznach; being the eldest of three children; her father’s linen store; the rise of the Nazis; being forced with other Jewish children to leave the public school; her father having to close his business; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938 and the destruction of the windows and furnishings in their home; being smuggled to France along with her brother Joseph; the German occupation of France beginning in May 1940; being evacuated from a children’s home in Paris to Versailles, where they were temporarily housed in Louis XIV’s palace; fleeing with their guardians to the unoccupied part of the country controlled by the Vichy government; crossing the Pyrenees into Spain; receiving permission to immigrate to the United States with the help of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS); sailing with her brother from Lisbon, Portugal to New York, NY in September 1941; reuniting with their parents and younger brother; and settling in Washington, DC. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

Oral History

Susan Warsinger, born on May 27, 1929 in Bad Kreuznach, Germany, discusses her childhood in Bad Kreuznach; being the eldest of three children; her father’s linen store; the rise of the Nazis; being forced with other Jewish children to leave the public school; her father having to close his business; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938 and the destruction of the windows and furnishings in their home; being smuggled to France along with her brother Joseph; the German occupation of France beginning in May 1940; being evacuated from a children’s home in Paris to Versailles, where they were temporarily housed in Louis XIV’s palace; fleeing with their guardians to the unoccupied part of the country controlled by the Vichy government; crossing the Pyrenees into Spain; receiving permission to immigrate to the United States with the help of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS); sailing with her brother from Lisbon, Portugal to New York, NY in September 1941; reuniting with their parents and younger brother; and settling in Washington, DC. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Irene Weiss

Oral History

Irene Weiss (née Fogel), born in November 21, 1930 in Bótrágy, Czechoslovakia (now Batrad’, Ukraine), discusses her family; her father Meyer, who owned a lumberyard; her mother Leah (née Mermelstein), who managed the home and cared for Irene and her five siblings (Moshe, Edit, Reuven, Gershon, and Serena); Bótrágy falling under Hungarian rule in 1939; the Hungarian authorities anti-Jewish actions, including banning Jews from attending school, confiscating Jewish businesses, and forcing thousands of Jewish men to join labor brigades; her father’s forced conscripted in 1942 for six months; being forced into a ghetto in a brick factory in Munkács (now Mukacheve, Ukraine) with other Jews in April 1944; remaining in the ghetto for two months; being deported with her family to Auschwitz; arriving in Auschwitz and the murder of her mother, three younger siblings, and older brother; being selected with her sister Serena for forced labor, while her father was forced to work as a Sonderkommando, removing corpses from the gas chambers and cremating them (her father was later killed by the SS when he was no longer able to work); working with Serena and her two aunts (Rose and Piri Mermelstein) in the Kanada section of Birkenau for eight months until January 1945, when the SS evacuated them on foot to two other camps; her Aunt Piri’s death in the second camp; how as the Soviet troops approached, the SS personnel fled, leaving the camp unguarded, and the prisoners gradually left; finding temporary shelter (along with Rose and Serena) in an empty house in a nearby town; going soon after to Prague to look for relatives and other survivors; living with their surviving relatives in Teplice-Šanov (Teplice, Czech Republic); attending a Czech school while Serena worked in a factory and Rose remained at home (she was ill with tuberculosis); and immigrating to the United States in 1947 with the sponsorship of relatives and financial aid from the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Irene Weiss

Oral History

Irene Weiss (née Fogel), born in November 21, 1930 in Bótrágy, Czechoslovakia (now Batrad’, Ukraine), discusses her family; her father Meyer, who owned a lumberyard; her mother Leah (née Mermelstein), who managed the home and cared for Irene and her five siblings (Moshe, Edit, Reuven, Gershon, and Serena); Bótrágy falling under Hungarian rule in 1939; the Hungarian authorities anti-Jewish actions, including banning Jews from attending school, confiscating Jewish businesses, and forcing thousands of Jewish men to join labor brigades; her father’s forced conscripted in 1942 for six months; being forced into a ghetto in a brick factory in Munkács (now Mukacheve, Ukraine) with other Jews in April 1944; remaining in the ghetto for two months; being deported with her family to Auschwitz; arriving in Auschwitz and the murder of her mother, three younger siblings, and older brother; being selected with her sister Serena for forced labor, while her father was forced to work as a Sonderkommando, removing corpses from the gas chambers and cremating them (her father was later killed by the SS when he was no longer able to work); working with Serena and her two aunts (Rose and Piri Mermelstein) in the Kanada section of Birkenau for eight months until January 1945, when the SS evacuated them on foot to two other camps; her Aunt Piri’s death in the second camp; how as the Soviet troops approached, the SS personnel fled, leaving the camp unguarded, and the prisoners gradually left; finding temporary shelter (along with Rose and Serena) in an empty house in a nearby town; going soon after to Prague to look for relatives and other survivors; living with their surviving relatives in Teplice-Šanov (Teplice, Czech Republic); attending a Czech school while Serena worked in a factory and Rose remained at home (she was ill with tuberculosis); and immigrating to the United States in 1947 with the sponsorship of relatives and financial aid from the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

Oral History

Susan Warsinger, born on May 27, 1929 in Bad Kreuznach, Germany, discusses her childhood in Bad Kreuznach; being the eldest of three children; her father’s linen store; the rise of the Nazis; being forced with other Jewish children to leave the public school; her father having to close his business; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938 and the destruction of the windows and furnishings in their home; being smuggled to France along with her brother Joseph; the German occupation of France beginning in May 1940; being evacuated from a children’s home in Paris to Versailles, where they were temporarily housed in Louis XIV’s palace; fleeing with their guardians to the unoccupied part of the country controlled by the Vichy government; crossing the Pyrenees into Spain; receiving permission to immigrate to the United States with the help of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS); sailing with her brother from Lisbon, Portugal to New York, NY in September 1941; reuniting with their parents and younger brother; and settling in Washington, DC. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

Oral History

Susan Warsinger, born on May 27, 1929 in Bad Kreuznach, Germany, discusses her childhood in Bad Kreuznach; being the eldest of three children; her father’s linen store; the rise of the Nazis; being forced with other Jewish children to leave the public school; her father having to close his business; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938 and the destruction of the windows and furnishings in their home; being smuggled to France along with her brother Joseph; the German occupation of France beginning in May 1940; being evacuated from a children’s home in Paris to Versailles, where they were temporarily housed in Louis XIV’s palace; fleeing with their guardians to the unoccupied part of the country controlled by the Vichy government; crossing the Pyrenees into Spain; receiving permission to immigrate to the United States with the help of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS); sailing with her brother from Lisbon, Portugal to New York, NY in September 1941; reuniting with their parents and younger brother; and settling in Washington, DC.

Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

Oral History

Susan Warsinger, born on May 27, 1929 in Bad Kreuznach, Germany, discusses her childhood in Bad Kreuznach; being the eldest of three children; her father’s linen store; the rise of the Nazis; being forced with other Jewish children to leave the public school; her father having to close his business; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938 and the destruction of the windows and furnishings in their home; being smuggled to France along with her brother Joseph; the German occupation of France beginning in May 1940; being evacuated from a children’s home in Paris to Versailles, where they were temporarily housed in Louis XIV’s palace; fleeing with their guardians to the unoccupied part of the country controlled by the Vichy government; crossing the Pyrenees into Spain; receiving permission to immigrate to the United States with the help of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS); sailing with her brother from Lisbon, Portugal to New York, NY in September 1941; reuniting with their parents and younger brother; and settling in Washington, DC. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

Oral History

Susan Warsinger, born on May 27, 1929 in Bad Kreuznach, Germany, discusses her childhood in Bad Kreuznach; being the eldest of three children; her father’s linen store; the rise of the Nazis; being forced with other Jewish children to leave the public school; her father having to close his business; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938 and the destruction of the windows and furnishings in their home; being smuggled to France along with her brother Joseph; the German occupation of France beginning in May 1940; being evacuated from a children’s home in Paris to Versailles, where they were temporarily housed in Louis XIV’s palace; fleeing with their guardians to the unoccupied part of the country controlled by the Vichy government; crossing the Pyrenees into Spain; receiving permission to immigrate to the United States with the help of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS); sailing with her brother from Lisbon, Portugal to New York, NY in September 1941; reuniting with their parents and younger brother; and settling in Washington, DC. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

Oral History

Susan Warsinger, born on May 27, 1929 in Bad Kreuznach, Germany, discusses her childhood in Bad Kreuznach; being the eldest of three children; her father’s linen store; the rise of the Nazis; being forced with other Jewish children to leave the public school; her father having to close his business; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938 and the destruction of the windows and furnishings in their home; being smuggled to France along with her brother Joseph; the German occupation of France beginning in May 1940; being evacuated from a children’s home in Paris to Versailles, where they were temporarily housed in Louis XIV’s palace; fleeing with their guardians to the unoccupied part of the country controlled by the Vichy government; crossing the Pyrenees into Spain; receiving permission to immigrate to the United States with the help of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS); sailing with her brother from Lisbon, Portugal to New York, NY in September 1941; reuniting with their parents and younger brother; and settling in Washington, DC. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

Oral History

Susan Warsinger, born on May 27, 1929 in Bad Kreuznach, Germany, discusses her childhood in Bad Kreuznach; being the eldest of three children; her father’s linen store; the rise of the Nazis; being forced with other Jewish children to leave the public school; her father having to close his business; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938 and the destruction of the windows and furnishings in their home; being smuggled to France along with her brother Joseph; the German occupation of France beginning in May 1940; being evacuated from a children’s home in Paris to Versailles, where they were temporarily housed in Louis XIV’s palace; fleeing with their guardians to the unoccupied part of the country controlled by the Vichy government; crossing the Pyrenees into Spain; receiving permission to immigrate to the United States with the help of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS); sailing with her brother from Lisbon, Portugal to New York, NY in September 1941; reuniting with their parents and younger brother; and settling in Washington, DC. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

Oral History

Susan Warsinger, born on May 27, 1929 in Bad Kreuznach, Germany, discusses her childhood in Bad Kreuznach; being the eldest of three children; her father’s linen store; the rise of the Nazis; being forced with other Jewish children to leave the public school; her father having to close his business; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938 and the destruction of the windows and furnishings in their home; being smuggled to France along with her brother Joseph; the German occupation of France beginning in May 1940; being evacuated from a children’s home in Paris to Versailles, where they were temporarily housed in Louis XIV’s palace; fleeing with their guardians to the unoccupied part of the country controlled by the Vichy government; crossing the Pyrenees into Spain; receiving permission to immigrate to the United States with the help of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS); sailing with her brother from Lisbon, Portugal to New York, NY in September 1941; reuniting with their parents and younger brother; and settling in Washington, DC. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

Oral History

Susan Warsinger, born on May 27, 1929 in Bad Kreuznach, Germany, discusses her childhood in Bad Kreuznach; being the eldest of three children; her father’s linen store; the rise of the Nazis; being forced with other Jewish children to leave the public school; her father having to close his business; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938 and the destruction of the windows and furnishings in their home; being smuggled to France along with her brother Joseph; the German occupation of France beginning in May 1940; being evacuated from a children’s home in Paris to Versailles, where they were temporarily housed in Louis XIV’s palace; fleeing with their guardians to the unoccupied part of the country controlled by the Vichy government; crossing the Pyrenees into Spain; receiving permission to immigrate to the United States with the help of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS); sailing with her brother from Lisbon, Portugal to New York, NY in September 1941; reuniting with their parents and younger brother; and settling in Washington, DC. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

Oral History

Susan Warsinger, born on May 27, 1929 in Bad Kreuznach, Germany, discusses her childhood in Bad Kreuznach; being the eldest of three children; her father’s linen store; the rise of the Nazis; being forced with other Jewish children to leave the public school; her father having to close his business; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938 and the destruction of the windows and furnishings in their home; being smuggled to France along with her brother Joseph; the German occupation of France beginning in May 1940; being evacuated from a children’s home in Paris to Versailles, where they were temporarily housed in Louis XIV’s palace; fleeing with their guardians to the unoccupied part of the country controlled by the Vichy government; crossing the Pyrenees into Spain; receiving permission to immigrate to the United States with the help of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS); sailing with her brother from Lisbon, Portugal to New York, NY in September 1941; reuniting with their parents and younger brother; and settling in Washington, DC. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

Oral History

Susan Warsinger, born on May 27, 1929 in Bad Kreuznach, Germany, discusses her childhood in Bad Kreuznach; being the eldest of three children; her father’s linen store; the rise of the Nazis; being forced with other Jewish children to leave the public school; her father having to close his business; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938 and the destruction of the windows and furnishings in their home; being smuggled to France along with her brother Joseph; the German occupation of France beginning in May 1940; being evacuated from a children’s home in Paris to Versailles, where they were temporarily housed in Louis XIV’s palace; fleeing with their guardians to the unoccupied part of the country controlled by the Vichy government; crossing the Pyrenees into Spain; receiving permission to immigrate to the United States with the help of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS); sailing with her brother from Lisbon, Portugal to New York, NY in September 1941; reuniting with their parents and younger brother; and settling in Washington, DC. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Irene Weiss

Oral History

Irene Weiss (née Fogel), born in November 21, 1930 in Bótrágy, Czechoslovakia (now Batrad’, Ukraine), discusses her family; her father Meyer, who owned a lumberyard; her mother Leah (née Mermelstein), who managed the home and cared for Irene and her five siblings (Moshe, Edit, Reuven, Gershon, and Serena); Bótrágy falling under Hungarian rule in 1939; the Hungarian authorities anti-Jewish actions, including banning Jews from attending school, confiscating Jewish businesses, and forcing thousands of Jewish men to join labor brigades; her father’s forced conscripted in 1942 for six months; being forced into a ghetto in a brick factory in Munkács (now Mukacheve, Ukraine) with other Jews in April 1944; remaining in the ghetto for two months; being deported with her family to Auschwitz; arriving in Auschwitz and the murder of her mother, three younger siblings, and older brother; being selected with her sister Serena for forced labor, while her father was forced to work as a Sonderkommando, removing corpses from the gas chambers and cremating them (her father was later killed by the SS when he was no longer able to work); working with Serena and her two aunts (Rose and Piri Mermelstein) in the Kanada section of Birkenau for eight months until January 1945, when the SS evacuated them on foot to two other camps; her Aunt Piri’s death in the second camp; how as the Soviet troops approached, the SS personnel fled, leaving the camp unguarded, and the prisoners gradually left; finding temporary shelter (along with Rose and Serena) in an empty house in a nearby town; going soon after to Prague to look for relatives and other survivors; living with their surviving relatives in Teplice-Šanov (Teplice, Czech Republic); attending a Czech school while Serena worked in a factory and Rose remained at home (she was ill with tuberculosis); and immigrating to the United States in 1947 with the sponsorship of relatives and financial aid from the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Irene Weiss

Oral History

Irene Weiss (née Fogel), born in November 21, 1930 in Bótrágy, Czechoslovakia (now Batrad’, Ukraine), discusses her family; her father Meyer, who owned a lumberyard; her mother Leah (née Mermelstein), who managed the home and cared for Irene and her five siblings (Moshe, Edit, Reuven, Gershon, and Serena); Bótrágy falling under Hungarian rule in 1939; the Hungarian authorities anti-Jewish actions, including banning Jews from attending school, confiscating Jewish businesses, and forcing thousands of Jewish men to join labor brigades; her father’s forced conscripted in 1942 for six months; being forced into a ghetto in a brick factory in Munkács (now Mukacheve, Ukraine) with other Jews in April 1944; remaining in the ghetto for two months; being deported with her family to Auschwitz; arriving in Auschwitz and the murder of her mother, three younger siblings, and older brother; being selected with her sister Serena for forced labor, while her father was forced to work as a Sonderkommando, removing corpses from the gas chambers and cremating them (her father was later killed by the SS when he was no longer able to work); working with Serena and her two aunts (Rose and Piri Mermelstein) in the Kanada section of Birkenau for eight months until January 1945, when the SS evacuated them on foot to two other camps; her Aunt Piri’s death in the second camp; how as the Soviet troops approached, the SS personnel fled, leaving the camp unguarded, and the prisoners gradually left; finding temporary shelter (along with Rose and Serena) in an empty house in a nearby town; going soon after to Prague to look for relatives and other survivors; living with their surviving relatives in Teplice-Šanov (Teplice, Czech Republic); attending a Czech school while Serena worked in a factory and Rose remained at home (she was ill with tuberculosis); and immigrating to the United States in 1947 with the sponsorship of relatives and financial aid from the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Irene Weiss

Oral History

Irene Weiss (née Fogel), born in November 21, 1930 in Bótrágy, Czechoslovakia (now Batrad’, Ukraine), discusses her family; her father Meyer, who owned a lumberyard; her mother Leah (née Mermelstein), who managed the home and cared for Irene and her five siblings (Moshe, Edit, Reuven, Gershon, and Serena); Bótrágy falling under Hungarian rule in 1939; the Hungarian authorities anti-Jewish actions, including banning Jews from attending school, confiscating Jewish businesses, and forcing thousands of Jewish men to join labor brigades; her father’s forced conscripted in 1942 for six months; being forced into a ghetto in a brick factory in Munkács (now Mukacheve, Ukraine) with other Jews in April 1944; remaining in the ghetto for two months; being deported with her family to Auschwitz; arriving in Auschwitz and the murder of her mother, three younger siblings, and older brother; being selected with her sister Serena for forced labor, while her father was forced to work as a Sonderkommando, removing corpses from the gas chambers and cremating them (her father was later killed by the SS when he was no longer able to work); working with Serena and her two aunts (Rose and Piri Mermelstein) in the Kanada section of Birkenau for eight months until January 1945, when the SS evacuated them on foot to two other camps; her Aunt Piri’s death in the second camp; how as the Soviet troops approached, the SS personnel fled, leaving the camp unguarded, and the prisoners gradually left; finding temporary shelter (along with Rose and Serena) in an empty house in a nearby town; going soon after to Prague to look for relatives and other survivors; living with their surviving relatives in Teplice-Šanov (Teplice, Czech Republic); attending a Czech school while Serena worked in a factory and Rose remained at home (she was ill with tuberculosis); and immigrating to the United States in 1947 with the sponsorship of relatives and financial aid from the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Irene Weiss

Oral History

Irene Weiss (née Fogel), born in November 21, 1930 in Bótrágy, Czechoslovakia (now Batrad’, Ukraine), discusses her family; her father Meyer, who owned a lumberyard; her mother Leah (née Mermelstein), who managed the home and cared for Irene and her five siblings (Moshe, Edit, Reuven, Gershon, and Serena); Bótrágy falling under Hungarian rule in 1939; the Hungarian authorities anti-Jewish actions, including banning Jews from attending school, confiscating Jewish businesses, and forcing thousands of Jewish men to join labor brigades; her father’s forced conscripted in 1942 for six months; being forced into a ghetto in a brick factory in Munkács (now Mukacheve, Ukraine) with other Jews in April 1944; remaining in the ghetto for two months; being deported with her family to Auschwitz; arriving in Auschwitz and the murder of her mother, three younger siblings, and older brother; being selected with her sister Serena for forced labor, while her father was forced to work as a Sonderkommando, removing corpses from the gas chambers and cremating them (her father was later killed by the SS when he was no longer able to work); working with Serena and her two aunts (Rose and Piri Mermelstein) in the Kanada section of Birkenau for eight months until January 1945, when the SS evacuated them on foot to two other camps; her Aunt Piri’s death in the second camp; how as the Soviet troops approached, the SS personnel fled, leaving the camp unguarded, and the prisoners gradually left; finding temporary shelter (along with Rose and Serena) in an empty house in a nearby town; going soon after to Prague to look for relatives and other survivors; living with their surviving relatives in Teplice-Šanov (Teplice, Czech Republic); attending a Czech school while Serena worked in a factory and Rose remained at home (she was ill with tuberculosis); and immigrating to the United States in 1947 with the sponsorship of relatives and financial aid from the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Irene Weiss

Oral History

Irene Weiss (née Fogel), born in November 21, 1930 in Bótrágy, Czechoslovakia (now Batrad’, Ukraine), discusses her family; her father Meyer, who owned a lumberyard; her mother Leah (née Mermelstein), who managed the home and cared for Irene and her five siblings (Moshe, Edit, Reuven, Gershon, and Serena); Bótrágy falling under Hungarian rule in 1939; the Hungarian authorities anti-Jewish actions, including banning Jews from attending school, confiscating Jewish businesses, and forcing thousands of Jewish men to join labor brigades; her father’s forced conscripted in 1942 for six months; being forced into a ghetto in a brick factory in Munkács (now Mukacheve, Ukraine) with other Jews in April 1944; remaining in the ghetto for two months; being deported with her family to Auschwitz; arriving in Auschwitz and the murder of her mother, three younger siblings, and older brother; being selected with her sister Serena for forced labor, while her father was forced to work as a Sonderkommando, removing corpses from the gas chambers and cremating them (her father was later killed by the SS when he was no longer able to work); working with Serena and her two aunts (Rose and Piri Mermelstein) in the Kanada section of Birkenau for eight months until January 1945, when the SS evacuated them on foot to two other camps; her Aunt Piri’s death in the second camp; how as the Soviet troops approached, the SS personnel fled, leaving the camp unguarded, and the prisoners gradually left; finding temporary shelter (along with Rose and Serena) in an empty house in a nearby town; going soon after to Prague to look for relatives and other survivors; living with their surviving relatives in Teplice-Šanov (Teplice, Czech Republic); attending a Czech school while Serena worked in a factory and Rose remained at home (she was ill with tuberculosis); and immigrating to the United States in 1947 with the sponsorship of relatives and financial aid from the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Irene Weiss

Oral History

Irene Weiss (née Fogel), born in November 21, 1930 in Bótrágy, Czechoslovakia (now Batrad’, Ukraine), discusses her family; her father Meyer, who owned a lumberyard; her mother Leah (née Mermelstein), who managed the home and cared for Irene and her five siblings (Moshe, Edit, Reuven, Gershon, and Serena); Bótrágy falling under Hungarian rule in 1939; the Hungarian authorities anti-Jewish actions, including banning Jews from attending school, confiscating Jewish businesses, and forcing thousands of Jewish men to join labor brigades; her father’s forced conscripted in 1942 for six months; being forced into a ghetto in a brick factory in Munkács (now Mukacheve, Ukraine) with other Jews in April 1944; remaining in the ghetto for two months; being deported with her family to Auschwitz; arriving in Auschwitz and the murder of her mother, three younger siblings, and older brother; being selected with her sister Serena for forced labor, while her father was forced to work as a Sonderkommando, removing corpses from the gas chambers and cremating them (her father was later killed by the SS when he was no longer able to work); working with Serena and her two aunts (Rose and Piri Mermelstein) in the Kanada section of Birkenau for eight months until January 1945, when the SS evacuated them on foot to two other camps; her Aunt Piri’s death in the second camp; how as the Soviet troops approached, the SS personnel fled, leaving the camp unguarded, and the prisoners gradually left; finding temporary shelter (along with Rose and Serena) in an empty house in a nearby town; going soon after to Prague to look for relatives and other survivors; living with their surviving relatives in Teplice-Šanov (Teplice, Czech Republic); attending a Czech school while Serena worked in a factory and Rose remained at home (she was ill with tuberculosis); and immigrating to the United States in 1947 with the sponsorship of relatives and financial aid from the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald Schwab

Oral History

Gerald Schwab, born on February 19, 1925 in Freiburg, Germany to a conservative Jewish family, discusses his father, who was a businessman with a company based in Germany and a warehouse located in Switzerland, and his mother, who helped his father with the business; the Nazis’ rise to power in January 1933 and his family’s decision to leave Germany; going to Switzerland and then Saint-Louis, France; his family’s move to Lörrach, Germany circa 1935; his family’s desire to leave Germany again in 1938; attending a German school until two days after Kristallnacht; the restrictions placed on Jews; living with a farmer near Zurich, Switzerland from March to December 1939; staying with another family until May 1940 when his parents received the family’s visas; sailing to the United States with his family on the SS Washington; arriving in New York, NY when he was 15 years old; his family’s acquisition of a poultry farm in central New Jersey; attending school; being drafted in 1944 into the US Army; returning to Germany as an American soldier; and achieving the rank of corporal by the time he was discharged. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald Schwab

Oral History

Gerald Schwab, born on February 19, 1925 in Freiburg, Germany to a conservative Jewish family, discusses his father, who was a businessman with a company based in Germany and a warehouse located in Switzerland, and his mother, who helped his father with the business; the Nazis’ rise to power in January 1933 and his family’s decision to leave Germany; going to Switzerland and then Saint-Louis, France; his family’s move to Lörrach, Germany circa 1935; his family’s desire to leave Germany again in 1938; attending a German school until two days after Kristallnacht; the restrictions placed on Jews; living with a farmer near Zurich, Switzerland from March to December 1939; staying with another family until May 1940 when his parents received the family’s visas; sailing to the United States with his family on the SS Washington; arriving in New York, NY when he was 15 years old; his family’s acquisition of a poultry farm in central New Jersey; attending school; being drafted in 1944 into the US Army; returning to Germany as an American soldier; and achieving the rank of corporal by the time he was discharged. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald Schwab

Oral History

Gerald Schwab, born on February 19, 1925 in Freiburg, Germany to a conservative Jewish family, discusses his father, who was a businessman with a company based in Germany and a warehouse located in Switzerland, and his mother, who helped his father with the business; the Nazis’ rise to power in January 1933 and his family’s decision to leave Germany; going to Switzerland and then Saint-Louis, France; his family’s move to Lörrach, Germany circa 1935; his family’s desire to leave Germany again in 1938; attending a German school until two days after Kristallnacht; the restrictions placed on Jews; living with a farmer near Zurich, Switzerland from March to December 1939; staying with another family until May 1940 when his parents received the family’s visas; sailing to the United States with his family on the SS Washington; arriving in New York, NY when he was 15 years old; his family’s acquisition of a poultry farm in central New Jersey; attending school; being drafted in 1944 into the US Army; returning to Germany as an American soldier; and achieving the rank of corporal by the time he was discharged. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald Schwab

Oral History

Gerald Schwab, born on February 19, 1925 in Freiburg, Germany to a conservative Jewish family, discusses his father, who was a businessman with a company based in Germany and a warehouse located in Switzerland, and his mother, who helped his father with the business; the Nazis’ rise to power in January 1933 and his family’s decision to leave Germany; going to Switzerland and then Saint-Louis, France; his family’s move to Lörrach, Germany circa 1935; his family’s desire to leave Germany again in 1938; attending a German school until two days after Kristallnacht; the restrictions placed on Jews; living with a farmer near Zurich, Switzerland from March to December 1939; staying with another family until May 1940 when his parents received the family’s visas; sailing to the United States with his family on the SS Washington; arriving in New York, NY when he was 15 years old; his family’s acquisition of a poultry farm in central New Jersey; attending school; being drafted in 1944 into the US Army; returning to Germany as an American soldier; and achieving the rank of corporal by the time he was discharged. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald Schwab

Oral History

Gerald Schwab, born on February 19, 1925 in Freiburg, Germany to a conservative Jewish family, discusses his father, who was a businessman with a company based in Germany and a warehouse located in Switzerland, and his mother, who helped his father with the business; the Nazis’ rise to power in January 1933 and his family’s decision to leave Germany; going to Switzerland and then Saint-Louis, France; his family’s move to Lörrach, Germany circa 1935; his family’s desire to leave Germany again in 1938; attending a German school until two days after Kristallnacht; the restrictions placed on Jews; living with a farmer near Zurich, Switzerland from March to December 1939; staying with another family until May 1940 when his parents received the family’s visas; sailing to the United States with his family on the SS Washington; arriving in New York, NY when he was 15 years old; his family’s acquisition of a poultry farm in central New Jersey; attending school; being drafted in 1944 into the US Army; returning to Germany as an American soldier; and achieving the rank of corporal by the time he was discharged. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald Schwab

Oral History

Gerald Schwab, born on February 19, 1925 in Freiburg, Germany to a conservative Jewish family, discusses his father, who was a businessman with a company based in Germany and a warehouse located in Switzerland, and his mother, who helped his father with the business; the Nazis’ rise to power in January 1933 and his family’s decision to leave Germany; going to Switzerland and then Saint-Louis, France; his family’s move to Lörrach, Germany circa 1935; his family’s desire to leave Germany again in 1938; attending a German school until two days after Kristallnacht; the restrictions placed on Jews; living with a farmer near Zurich, Switzerland from March to December 1939; staying with another family until May 1940 when his parents received the family’s visas; sailing to the United States with his family on the SS Washington; arriving in New York, NY when he was 15 years old; his family’s acquisition of a poultry farm in central New Jersey; attending school; being drafted in 1944 into the US Army; returning to Germany as an American soldier; and achieving the rank of corporal by the time he was discharged. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald Schwab

Oral History

Gerald Schwab, born on February 19, 1925 in Freiburg, Germany to a conservative Jewish family, discusses his father, who was a businessman with a company based in Germany and a warehouse located in Switzerland, and his mother, who helped his father with the business; the Nazis’ rise to power in January 1933 and his family’s decision to leave Germany; going to Switzerland and then Saint-Louis, France; his family’s move to Lörrach, Germany circa 1935; his family’s desire to leave Germany again in 1938; attending a German school until two days after Kristallnacht; the restrictions placed on Jews; living with a farmer near Zurich, Switzerland from March to December 1939; staying with another family until May 1940 when his parents received the family’s visas; sailing to the United States with his family on the SS Washington; arriving in New York, NY when he was 15 years old; his family’s acquisition of a poultry farm in central New Jersey; attending school; being drafted in 1944 into the US Army; returning to Germany as an American soldier; and achieving the rank of corporal by the time he was discharged. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald Schwab

Oral History

Gerald Schwab, born on February 19, 1925 in Freiburg, Germany to a conservative Jewish family, discusses his father, who was a businessman with a company based in Germany and a warehouse located in Switzerland, and his mother, who helped his father with the business; the Nazis’ rise to power in January 1933 and his family’s decision to leave Germany; going to Switzerland and then Saint-Louis, France; his family’s move to Lörrach, Germany circa 1935; his family’s desire to leave Germany again in 1938; attending a German school until two days after Kristallnacht; the restrictions placed on Jews; living with a farmer near Zurich, Switzerland from March to December 1939; staying with another family until May 1940 when his parents received the family’s visas; sailing to the United States with his family on the SS Washington; arriving in New York, NY when he was 15 years old; his family’s acquisition of a poultry farm in central New Jersey; attending school; being drafted in 1944 into the US Army; returning to Germany as an American soldier; and achieving the rank of corporal by the time he was discharged. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald Schwab

Oral History

Gerald Schwab, born on February 19, 1925 in Freiburg, Germany to a conservative Jewish family, discusses his father, who was a businessman with a company based in Germany and a warehouse located in Switzerland, and his mother, who helped his father with the business; the Nazis’ rise to power in January 1933 and his family’s decision to leave Germany; going to Switzerland and then Saint-Louis, France; his family’s move to Lörrach, Germany circa 1935; his family’s desire to leave Germany again in 1938; attending a German school until two days after Kristallnacht; the restrictions placed on Jews; living with a farmer near Zurich, Switzerland from March to December 1939; staying with another family until May 1940 when his parents received the family’s visas; sailing to the United States with his family on the SS Washington; arriving in New York, NY when he was 15 years old; his family’s acquisition of a poultry farm in central New Jersey; attending school; being drafted in 1944 into the US Army; returning to Germany as an American soldier; and achieving the rank of corporal by the time he was discharged. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Robert Behr

Oral History

Robert “Bob” Behr, born in 1922 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his family; his father Alfred, who was a real estate agent; his mother Lilly, who managed their household; his parents’ divorce when he was young; living with his mother and stepfather, Dr. Alfred Hamburger; the Nazis’ rise to power in 1933; the discrimination of Jews in Germany; attending a German-Jewish boarding school in Sweden until the school was forced to close; returning to Berlin; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938; the deportation of his father to Buchenwald; being evicted from their apartment; living in two rooms in an elderly Jewish woman’s apartment until 1942; the arrest of his mother and stepfather for helping their friend escape to Switzerland; his arrest a few day later; being sent with his family to Theresienstadt; his work in Theresienstadt, transporting bodies for burial and laying railroad tracks; working in the camp’s kitchen; protecting his parents from deportation to Auschwitz in early 1944 by volunteering to work on the new SS headquarters in Wulkow, Germany; returning to Theresienstadt in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on May 5, 1945; immigrating to the United States in 1947; enlisting in the US Army; being sent to Berlin, where he interrogated former Nazi personnel; leaving the army in 1952; and his work in Dayton, Ohio. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald L. Liebenau

Oral History

Gerald Liebenau, born on November 30, 1925 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his Jewish family; his father, who worked in the textile business; being the eldest of two children; his younger sister; attending public school until 1936 when Jewish children were forced to leave public schools; his family’s move in December 1938 to London, England; living in London for approximately one month as they waited for their visa numbers to be announced; immigrating to the United States with his family in February 1939; living in Scranton, Pennsylvania; moving a few years later to New London, Connecticut; finishing high school; joining the US Army; and spending one year in the infantry and one year in the Office of Strategic Services. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Robert Behr

Oral History

Robert “Bob” Behr, born in 1922 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his family; his father Alfred, who was a real estate agent; his mother Lilly, who managed their household; his parents’ divorce when he was young; living with his mother and stepfather, Dr. Alfred Hamburger; the Nazis’ rise to power in 1933; the discrimination of Jews in Germany; attending a German-Jewish boarding school in Sweden until the school was forced to close; returning to Berlin; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938; the deportation of his father to Buchenwald; being evicted from their apartment; living in two rooms in an elderly Jewish woman’s apartment until 1942; the arrest of his mother and stepfather for helping their friend escape to Switzerland; his arrest a few day later; being sent with his family to Theresienstadt; his work in Theresienstadt, transporting bodies for burial and laying railroad tracks; working in the camp’s kitchen; protecting his parents from deportation to Auschwitz in early 1944 by volunteering to work on the new SS headquarters in Wulkow, Germany; returning to Theresienstadt in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on May 5, 1945; immigrating to the United States in 1947; enlisting in the US Army; being sent to Berlin, where he interrogated former Nazi personnel; leaving the army in 1952; and his work in Dayton, Ohio. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Robert Behr

Oral History

Robert “Bob” Behr, born in 1922 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his family; his father Alfred, who was a real estate agent; his mother Lilly, who managed their household; his parents’ divorce when he was young; living with his mother and stepfather, Dr. Alfred Hamburger; the Nazis’ rise to power in 1933; the discrimination of Jews in Germany; attending a German-Jewish boarding school in Sweden until the school was forced to close; returning to Berlin; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938; the deportation of his father to Buchenwald; being evicted from their apartment; living in two rooms in an elderly Jewish woman’s apartment until 1942; the arrest of his mother and stepfather for helping their friend escape to Switzerland; his arrest a few day later; being sent with his family to Theresienstadt; his work in Theresienstadt, transporting bodies for burial and laying railroad tracks; working in the camp’s kitchen; protecting his parents from deportation to Auschwitz in early 1944 by volunteering to work on the new SS headquarters in Wulkow, Germany; returning to Theresienstadt in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on May 5, 1945; immigrating to the United States in 1947; enlisting in the US Army; being sent to Berlin, where he interrogated former Nazi personnel; leaving the army in 1952; and his work in Dayton, Ohio. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald L. Liebenau

Oral History

Gerald Liebenau, born on November 30, 1925 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his Jewish family; his father, who worked in the textile business; being the eldest of two children; his younger sister; attending public school until 1936 when Jewish children were forced to leave public schools; his family’s move in December 1938 to London, England; living in London for approximately one month as they waited for their visa numbers to be announced; immigrating to the United States with his family in February 1939; living in Scranton, Pennsylvania; moving a few years later to New London, Connecticut; finishing high school; joining the US Army; and spending one year in the infantry and one year in the Office of Strategic Services. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald Schwab

Oral History

Gerald Schwab, born on February 19, 1925 in Freiburg, Germany to a conservative Jewish family, discusses his father, who was a businessman with a company based in Germany and a warehouse located in Switzerland, and his mother, who helped his father with the business; the Nazis’ rise to power in January 1933 and his family’s decision to leave Germany; going to Switzerland and then Saint-Louis, France; his family’s move to Lörrach, Germany circa 1935; his family’s desire to leave Germany again in 1938; attending a German school until two days after Kristallnacht; the restrictions placed on Jews; living with a farmer near Zurich, Switzerland from March to December 1939; staying with another family until May 1940 when his parents received the family’s visas; sailing to the United States with his family on the SS Washington; arriving in New York, NY when he was 15 years old; his family’s acquisition of a poultry farm in central New Jersey; attending school; being drafted in 1944 into the US Army; returning to Germany as an American soldier; and achieving the rank of corporal by the time he was discharged. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gerald L. Liebenau

Oral History

Gerald Liebenau, born on November 30, 1925 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his Jewish family; his father, who worked in the textile business; being the eldest of two children; his younger sister; attending public school until 1936 when Jewish children were forced to leave public schools; his family’s move in December 1938 to London, England; living in London for approximately one month as they waited for their visa numbers to be announced; immigrating to the United States with his family in February 1939; living in Scranton, Pennsylvania; moving a few years later to New London, Connecticut; finishing high school; joining the US Army; and spending one year in the infantry and one year in the Office of Strategic Services. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Robert Behr

Oral History

Robert “Bob” Behr, born in 1922 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his family; his father Alfred, who was a real estate agent; his mother Lilly, who managed their household; his parents’ divorce when he was young; living with his mother and stepfather, Dr. Alfred Hamburger; the Nazis’ rise to power in 1933; the discrimination of Jews in Germany; attending a German-Jewish boarding school in Sweden until the school was forced to close; returning to Berlin; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938; the deportation of his father to Buchenwald; being evicted from their apartment; living in two rooms in an elderly Jewish woman’s apartment until 1942; the arrest of his mother and stepfather for helping their friend escape to Switzerland; his arrest a few day later; being sent with his family to Theresienstadt; his work in Theresienstadt, transporting bodies for burial and laying railroad tracks; working in the camp’s kitchen; protecting his parents from deportation to Auschwitz in early 1944 by volunteering to work on the new SS headquarters in Wulkow, Germany; returning to Theresienstadt in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on May 5, 1945; immigrating to the United States in 1947; enlisting in the US Army; being sent to Berlin, where he interrogated former Nazi personnel; leaving the army in 1952; and his work in Dayton, Ohio. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Robert Behr

Oral History

Robert “Bob” Behr, born in 1922 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his family; his father Alfred, who was a real estate agent; his mother Lilly, who managed their household; his parents’ divorce when he was young; living with his mother and stepfather, Dr. Alfred Hamburger; the Nazis’ rise to power in 1933; the discrimination of Jews in Germany; attending a German-Jewish boarding school in Sweden until the school was forced to close; returning to Berlin; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938; the deportation of his father to Buchenwald; being evicted from their apartment; living in two rooms in an elderly Jewish woman’s apartment until 1942; the arrest of his mother and stepfather for helping their friend escape to Switzerland; his arrest a few day later; being sent with his family to Theresienstadt; his work in Theresienstadt, transporting bodies for burial and laying railroad tracks; working in the camp’s kitchen; protecting his parents from deportation to Auschwitz in early 1944 by volunteering to work on the new SS headquarters in Wulkow, Germany; returning to Theresienstadt in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on May 5, 1945; immigrating to the United States in 1947; enlisting in the US Army; being sent to Berlin, where he interrogated former Nazi personnel; leaving the army in 1952; and his work in Dayton, Ohio. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Robert Behr

Oral History

Robert “Bob” Behr, born in 1922 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his family; his father Alfred, who was a real estate agent; his mother Lilly, who managed their household; his parents’ divorce when he was young; living with his mother and stepfather, Dr. Alfred Hamburger; the Nazis’ rise to power in 1933; the discrimination of Jews in Germany; attending a German-Jewish boarding school in Sweden until the school was forced to close; returning to Berlin; Kristallnacht on November 9-10, 1938; the deportation of his father to Buchenwald; being evicted from their apartment; living in two rooms in an elderly Jewish woman’s apartment until 1942; the arrest of his mother and stepfather for helping their friend escape to Switzerland; his arrest a few day later; being sent with his family to Theresienstadt; his work in Theresienstadt, transporting bodies for burial and laying railroad tracks; working in the camp’s kitchen; protecting his parents from deportation to Auschwitz in early 1944 by volunteering to work on the new SS headquarters in Wulkow, Germany; returning to Theresienstadt in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on May 5, 1945; immigrating to the United States in 1947; enlisting in the US Army; being sent to Berlin, where he interrogated former Nazi personnel; leaving the army in 1952; and his work in Dayton, Ohio. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Peter Gorog

Oral History

Oral history interview with Allan Firestone

Oral History

Oral history interview with Theodora Basch Vrančić Klayman

Oral History

Theodora Klayman (née Teodora Rahela Basch), born on January 31, 1938 in Zagreb, Yugoslavia (now in Croatia), discusses her family (her father Salamon owned and operated a small brush manufacturing plant); the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 while Teodora and her infant brother (Zdravko) were visiting their extended family in Ludbreg, Croatia; Croatia coming under the control of the Ustaša (a fascist group collaborating with the Nazis); the deportation of her father and mother to the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiska concentration camps, respectively; being sheltered along with Zdravko by their grandparents; staying with their aunt Giza and her Catholic husband Ludva, after most of the Jews were deported; avoiding arrest by taking a train to a nearby town or spending a few days at a time with different neighbors; how in 1943 Giza was denounced, arrested, and deported to Auschwitz; Ludva’s attempts to have Giza released (Giza died from an intestinal illness soon after her arrival in Auschwitz); hiding while Ludva was away with their neighbors and pretending to be their children; how most people in Ludbreg knew the children were Jewish, but they were never denounced; being raised by Ludva after the war; and the death of Zdravko from scarlet fever. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Theodora Basch Vrančić Klayman

Oral History

Theodora Klayman (née Teodora Rahela Basch), born on January 31, 1938 in Zagreb, Yugoslavia (now in Croatia), discusses her family (her father Salamon owned and operated a small brush manufacturing plant); the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 while Teodora and her infant brother (Zdravko) were visiting their extended family in Ludbreg, Croatia; Croatia coming under the control of the Ustaša (a fascist group collaborating with the Nazis); the deportation of her father and mother to the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiska concentration camps, respectively; being sheltered along with Zdravko by their grandparents; staying with their aunt Giza and her Catholic husband Ludva, after most of the Jews were deported; avoiding arrest by taking a train to a nearby town or spending a few days at a time with different neighbors; how in 1943 Giza was denounced, arrested, and deported to Auschwitz; Ludva’s attempts to have Giza released (Giza died from an intestinal illness soon after her arrival in Auschwitz); hiding while Ludva was away with their neighbors and pretending to be their children; how most people in Ludbreg knew the children were Jewish, but they were never denounced; being raised by Ludva after the war; and the death of Zdravko from scarlet fever. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Estelle Laughlin

Oral History

Estelle Laughlin (née Wakszlak), born on July 9, 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her parents Michla and Samek; her older sister Freda (born January 1928); the jewelry shop her father operated; attending a local public school; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the siege on Warsaw beginning one week later; the German occupation and not being allowed to attend school; the establishment of a ghetto in October 1940 and being forced with other Jews to live in the ghetto; the conditions in the ghetto; the massive deportations of Jews to Treblinka from July to September 1942; hiding in a secret room with her family during the deportations; her father’s efforts in the resistance movement; the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in the spring of 1943 and hiding in a bunker with her family; being discovered in the bunker and the deportation of her family to Majdanek; being selected for forced labor along with her mother and sister; her father’s death in the gas chamber; her sister being badly beaten and placed on a list that she and her mother thought was a gas chamber list; their decision to switch places with two other women so they could be on the same list with Freda; being sent together to Skarzysko concentration camp to work in a munitions factory and later to camp Czestochowa; being liberation by Soviet forces from Czestochowa in January 1945; moving with her mother and sister to Bavaria, Germany in August 1945 and living there until 1947; immigrating as a family to the United States; and joining two of Estelle’s aunts and an uncle in New York City.

Oral history interview with Estelle Laughlin

Oral History

Estelle Laughlin (née Wakszlak), born on July 9, 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her parents Michla and Samek; her older sister Freda (born January 1928); the jewelry shop her father operated; attending a local public school; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the siege on Warsaw beginning one week later; the German occupation and not being allowed to attend school; the establishment of a ghetto in October 1940 and being forced with other Jews to live in the ghetto; the conditions in the ghetto; the massive deportations of Jews to Treblinka from July to September 1942; hiding in a secret room with her family during the deportations; her father’s efforts in the resistance movement; the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in the spring of 1943 and hiding in a bunker with her family; being discovered in the bunker and the deportation of her family to Majdanek; being selected for forced labor along with her mother and sister; her father’s death in the gas chamber; her sister being badly beaten and placed on a list that she and her mother thought was a gas chamber list; their decision to switch places with two other women so they could be on the same list with Freda; being sent together to Skarzysko concentration camp to work in a munitions factory and later to camp Czestochowa; being liberation by Soviet forces from Czestochowa in January 1945; moving with her mother and sister to Bavaria, Germany in August 1945 and living there until 1947; immigrating as a family to the United States; and joining two of Estelle’s aunts and an uncle in New York City.

Oral history interview with Estelle Laughlin

Oral History

Estelle Laughlin (née Wakszlak), born on July 9, 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her parents Michla and Samek; her older sister Freda (born January 1928); the jewelry shop her father operated; attending a local public school; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the siege on Warsaw beginning one week later; the German occupation and not being allowed to attend school; the establishment of a ghetto in October 1940 and being forced with other Jews to live in the ghetto; the conditions in the ghetto; the massive deportations of Jews to Treblinka from July to September 1942; hiding in a secret room with her family during the deportations; her father’s efforts in the resistance movement; the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in the spring of 1943 and hiding in a bunker with her family; being discovered in the bunker and the deportation of her family to Majdanek; being selected for forced labor along with her mother and sister; her father’s death in the gas chamber; her sister being badly beaten and placed on a list that she and her mother thought was a gas chamber list; their decision to switch places with two other women so they could be on the same list with Freda; being sent together to Skarzysko concentration camp to work in a munitions factory and later to camp Czestochowa; being liberation by Soviet forces from Czestochowa in January 1945; moving with her mother and sister to Bavaria, Germany in August 1945 and living there until 1947; immigrating as a family to the United States; and joining two of Estelle’s aunts and an uncle in New York City.

Oral history interview with Estelle Laughlin

Oral History

Estelle Laughlin (née Wakszlak), born on July 9, 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her parents Michla and Samek; her older sister Freda (born January 1928); the jewelry shop her father operated; attending a local public school; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the siege on Warsaw beginning one week later; the German occupation and not being allowed to attend school; the establishment of a ghetto in October 1940 and being forced with other Jews to live in the ghetto; the conditions in the ghetto; the massive deportations of Jews to Treblinka from July to September 1942; hiding in a secret room with her family during the deportations; her father’s efforts in the resistance movement; the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in the spring of 1943 and hiding in a bunker with her family; being discovered in the bunker and the deportation of her family to Majdanek; being selected for forced labor along with her mother and sister; her father’s death in the gas chamber; her sister being badly beaten and placed on a list that she and her mother thought was a gas chamber list; their decision to switch places with two other women so they could be on the same list with Freda; being sent together to Skarzysko concentration camp to work in a munitions factory and later to camp Czestochowa; being liberation by Soviet forces from Czestochowa in January 1945; moving with her mother and sister to Bavaria, Germany in August 1945 and living there until 1947; immigrating as a family to the United States; and joining two of Estelle’s aunts and an uncle in New York City.

Oral history interview with Estelle Laughlin

Oral History

Estelle Laughlin (née Wakszlak), born on July 9, 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her parents Michla and Samek; her older sister Freda (born January 1928); the jewelry shop her father operated; attending a local public school; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the siege on Warsaw beginning one week later; the German occupation and not being allowed to attend school; the establishment of a ghetto in October 1940 and being forced with other Jews to live in the ghetto; the conditions in the ghetto; the massive deportations of Jews to Treblinka from July to September 1942; hiding in a secret room with her family during the deportations; her father’s efforts in the resistance movement; the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in the spring of 1943 and hiding in a bunker with her family; being discovered in the bunker and the deportation of her family to Majdanek; being selected for forced labor along with her mother and sister; her father’s death in the gas chamber; her sister being badly beaten and placed on a list that she and her mother thought was a gas chamber list; their decision to switch places with two other women so they could be on the same list with Freda; being sent together to Skarzysko concentration camp to work in a munitions factory and later to camp Czestochowa; being liberation by Soviet forces from Czestochowa in January 1945; moving with her mother and sister to Bavaria, Germany in August 1945 and living there until 1947; immigrating as a family to the United States; and joining two of Estelle’s aunts and an uncle in New York City.

Oral history interview with Estelle Laughlin

Oral History

Estelle Laughlin (née Wakszlak), born on July 9, 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her parents Michla and Samek; her older sister Freda (born January 1928); the jewelry shop her father operated; attending a local public school; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the siege on Warsaw beginning one week later; the German occupation and not being allowed to attend school; the establishment of a ghetto in October 1940 and being forced with other Jews to live in the ghetto; the conditions in the ghetto; the massive deportations of Jews to Treblinka from July to September 1942; hiding in a secret room with her family during the deportations; her father’s efforts in the resistance movement; the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in the spring of 1943 and hiding in a bunker with her family; being discovered in the bunker and the deportation of her family to Majdanek; being selected for forced labor along with her mother and sister; her father’s death in the gas chamber; her sister being badly beaten and placed on a list that she and her mother thought was a gas chamber list; their decision to switch places with two other women so they could be on the same list with Freda; being sent together to Skarzysko concentration camp to work in a munitions factory and later to camp Czestochowa; being liberation by Soviet forces from Czestochowa in January 1945; moving with her mother and sister to Bavaria, Germany in August 1945 and living there until 1947; immigrating as a family to the United States; and joining two of Estelle’s aunts and an uncle in New York City.

Oral history interview with Estelle Laughlin

Oral History

Estelle Laughlin (née Wakszlak), born on July 9, 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her parents Michla and Samek; her older sister Freda (born January 1928); the jewelry shop her father operated; attending a local public school; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the siege on Warsaw beginning one week later; the German occupation and not being allowed to attend school; the establishment of a ghetto in October 1940 and being forced with other Jews to live in the ghetto; the conditions in the ghetto; the massive deportations of Jews to Treblinka from July to September 1942; hiding in a secret room with her family during the deportations; her father’s efforts in the resistance movement; the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in the spring of 1943 and hiding in a bunker with her family; being discovered in the bunker and the deportation of her family to Majdanek; being selected for forced labor along with her mother and sister; her father’s death in the gas chamber; her sister being badly beaten and placed on a list that she and her mother thought was a gas chamber list; their decision to switch places with two other women so they could be on the same list with Freda; being sent together to Skarzysko concentration camp to work in a munitions factory and later to camp Czestochowa; being liberation by Soviet forces from Czestochowa in January 1945; moving with her mother and sister to Bavaria, Germany in August 1945 and living there until 1947; immigrating as a family to the United States; and joining two of Estelle’s aunts and an uncle in New York City.

Oral history interview with Estelle Laughlin

Oral History

Estelle Laughlin (née Wakszlak), born on July 9, 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her parents Michla and Samek; her older sister Freda (born January 1928); the jewelry shop her father operated; attending a local public school; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the siege on Warsaw beginning one week later; the German occupation and not being allowed to attend school; the establishment of a ghetto in October 1940 and being forced with other Jews to live in the ghetto; the conditions in the ghetto; the massive deportations of Jews to Treblinka from July to September 1942; hiding in a secret room with her family during the deportations; her father’s efforts in the resistance movement; the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in the spring of 1943 and hiding in a bunker with her family; being discovered in the bunker and the deportation of her family to Majdanek; being selected for forced labor along with her mother and sister; her father’s death in the gas chamber; her sister being badly beaten and placed on a list that she and her mother thought was a gas chamber list; their decision to switch places with two other women so they could be on the same list with Freda; being sent together to Skarzysko concentration camp to work in a munitions factory and later to camp Czestochowa; being liberation by Soviet forces from Czestochowa in January 1945; moving with her mother and sister to Bavaria, Germany in August 1945 and living there until 1947; immigrating as a family to the United States; and joining two of Estelle’s aunts and an uncle in New York City.

Oral history interview with Estelle Laughlin

Oral History

Estelle Laughlin (née Wakszlak), born on July 9, 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her parents Michla and Samek; her older sister Freda (born January 1928); the jewelry shop her father operated; attending a local public school; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the siege on Warsaw beginning one week later; the German occupation and not being allowed to attend school; the establishment of a ghetto in October 1940 and being forced with other Jews to live in the ghetto; the conditions in the ghetto; the massive deportations of Jews to Treblinka from July to September 1942; hiding in a secret room with her family during the deportations; her father’s efforts in the resistance movement; the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in the spring of 1943 and hiding in a bunker with her family; being discovered in the bunker and the deportation of her family to Majdanek; being selected for forced labor along with her mother and sister; her father’s death in the gas chamber; her sister being badly beaten and placed on a list that she and her mother thought was a gas chamber list; their decision to switch places with two other women so they could be on the same list with Freda; being sent together to Skarzysko concentration camp to work in a munitions factory and later to camp Czestochowa; being liberation by Soviet forces from Czestochowa in January 1945; moving with her mother and sister to Bavaria, Germany in August 1945 and living there until 1947; immigrating as a family to the United States; and joining two of Estelle’s aunts and an uncle in New York City.

Oral history interview with Estelle Laughlin

Oral History

Estelle Laughlin (née Wakszlak), born on July 9, 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her parents Michla and Samek; her older sister Freda (born January 1928); the jewelry shop her father operated; attending a local public school; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the siege on Warsaw beginning one week later; the German occupation and not being allowed to attend school; the establishment of a ghetto in October 1940 and being forced with other Jews to live in the ghetto; the conditions in the ghetto; the massive deportations of Jews to Treblinka from July to September 1942; hiding in a secret room with her family during the deportations; her father’s efforts in the resistance movement; the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in the spring of 1943 and hiding in a bunker with her family; being discovered in the bunker and the deportation of her family to Majdanek; being selected for forced labor along with her mother and sister; her father’s death in the gas chamber; her sister being badly beaten and placed on a list that she and her mother thought was a gas chamber list; their decision to switch places with two other women so they could be on the same list with Freda; being sent together to Skarzysko concentration camp to work in a munitions factory and later to camp Czestochowa; being liberation by Soviet forces from Czestochowa in January 1945; moving with her mother and sister to Bavaria, Germany in August 1945 and living there until 1947; immigrating as a family to the United States; and joining two of Estelle’s aunts and an uncle in New York City.

Oral history interview with Estelle Laughlin

Oral History

Estelle Laughlin (née Wakszlak), born on July 9, 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her parents Michla and Samek; her older sister Freda (born January 1928); the jewelry shop her father operated; attending a local public school; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the siege on Warsaw beginning one week later; the German occupation and not being allowed to attend school; the establishment of a ghetto in October 1940 and being forced with other Jews to live in the ghetto; the conditions in the ghetto; the massive deportations of Jews to Treblinka from July to September 1942; hiding in a secret room with her family during the deportations; her father’s efforts in the resistance movement; the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in the spring of 1943 and hiding in a bunker with her family; being discovered in the bunker and the deportation of her family to Majdanek; being selected for forced labor along with her mother and sister; her father’s death in the gas chamber; her sister being badly beaten and placed on a list that she and her mother thought was a gas chamber list; their decision to switch places with two other women so they could be on the same list with Freda; being sent together to Skarzysko concentration camp to work in a munitions factory and later to camp Czestochowa; being liberation by Soviet forces from Czestochowa in January 1945; moving with her mother and sister to Bavaria, Germany in August 1945 and living there until 1947; immigrating as a family to the United States; and joining two of Estelle’s aunts and an uncle in New York City.

Oral history interview with Estelle Laughlin

Oral History

Estelle Laughlin (née Wakszlak), born on July 9, 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her parents Michla and Samek; her older sister Freda (born January 1928); the jewelry shop her father operated; attending a local public school; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the siege on Warsaw beginning one week later; the German occupation and not being allowed to attend school; the establishment of a ghetto in October 1940 and being forced with other Jews to live in the ghetto; the conditions in the ghetto; the massive deportations of Jews to Treblinka from July to September 1942; hiding in a secret room with her family during the deportations; her father’s efforts in the resistance movement; the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in the spring of 1943 and hiding in a bunker with her family; being discovered in the bunker and the deportation of her family to Majdanek; being selected for forced labor along with her mother and sister; her father’s death in the gas chamber; her sister being badly beaten and placed on a list that she and her mother thought was a gas chamber list; their decision to switch places with two other women so they could be on the same list with Freda; being sent together to Skarzysko concentration camp to work in a munitions factory and later to camp Czestochowa; being liberation by Soviet forces from Czestochowa in January 1945; moving with her mother and sister to Bavaria, Germany in August 1945 and living there until 1947; immigrating as a family to the United States; and joining two of Estelle’s aunts and an uncle in New York City.

Oral history interview with Manny Mandel

Oral History

Emanuel Mandel, born in 1936 in Riga, Latvia, describes his family moving to Budapest, Hungary when he was three months old; his father’s work as a cantor; the anti-Jewish laws implemented in the 1930s; the German occupation of Budapest in early 1944; being deported with his mother by cattle car in June 1944 to Bergen-Belsen; developing pneumonia and not having access to much food while in the camp; being taken to Switzerland in late 1944; staying in a Red Cross hotel near Montreux; going to a children’s home in Heiden; immigrating with his mother to Palestine in 1945; and immigrating to the United States in March 1949. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Manny Mandel

Oral History

Emanuel Mandel, born in 1936 in Riga, Latvia, describes his family moving to Budapest, Hungary when he was three months old; his father’s work as a cantor; the anti-Jewish laws implemented in the 1930s; the German occupation of Budapest in early 1944; being deported with his mother by cattle car in June 1944 to Bergen-Belsen; developing pneumonia and not having access to much food while in the camp; being taken to Switzerland in late 1944; staying in a Red Cross hotel near Montreux; going to a children’s home in Heiden; immigrating with his mother to Palestine in 1945; and immigrating to the United States in March 1949. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Manny Mandel

Oral History

Emanuel Mandel, born in 1936 in Riga, Latvia, describes his family moving to Budapest, Hungary when he was three months old; his father’s work as a cantor; the anti-Jewish laws implemented in the 1930s; the German occupation of Budapest in early 1944; being deported with his mother by cattle car in June 1944 to Bergen-Belsen; developing pneumonia and not having access to much food while in the camp; being taken to Switzerland in late 1944; staying in a Red Cross hotel near Montreux; going to a children’s home in Heiden; immigrating with his mother to Palestine in 1945; and immigrating to the United States in March 1949. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Manny Mandel

Oral History

Oral history interview with Manny Mandel

Oral History

Emanuel Mandel, born in 1936 in Riga, Latvia, describes his family moving to Budapest, Hungary when he was three months old; his father’s work as a cantor; the anti-Jewish laws implemented in the 1930s; the German occupation of Budapest in early 1944; being deported with his mother by cattle car in June 1944 to Bergen-Belsen; developing pneumonia and not having access to much food while in the camp; being taken to Switzerland in late 1944; staying in a Red Cross hotel near Montreux; going to a children’s home in Heiden; immigrating with his mother to Palestine in 1945; and immigrating to the United States in March 1949. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Manny Mandel

Oral History

Emanuel Mandel, born in 1936 in Riga, Latvia, describes his family moving to Budapest, Hungary when he was three months old; his father’s work as a cantor; the anti-Jewish laws implemented in the 1930s; the German occupation of Budapest in early 1944; being deported with his mother by cattle car in June 1944 to Bergen-Belsen; developing pneumonia and not having access to much food while in the camp; being taken to Switzerland in late 1944; staying in a Red Cross hotel near Montreux; going to a children’s home in Heiden; immigrating with his mother to Palestine in 1945; and immigrating to the United States in March 1949. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Manny Mandel

Oral History

Emanuel Mandel, born in 1936 in Riga, Latvia, describes his family moving to Budapest, Hungary when he was three months old; his father’s work as a cantor; the anti-Jewish laws implemented in the 1930s; the German occupation of Budapest in early 1944; being deported with his mother by cattle car in June 1944 to Bergen-Belsen; developing pneumonia and not having access to much food while in the camp; being taken to Switzerland in late 1944; staying in a Red Cross hotel near Montreux; going to a children’s home in Heiden; immigrating with his mother to Palestine in 1945; and immigrating to the United States in March 1949. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Manny Mandel

Oral History

Emanuel Mandel, born in 1936 in Riga, Latvia, describes his family moving to Budapest, Hungary when he was three months old; his father’s work as a cantor; the anti-Jewish laws implemented in the 1930s; the German occupation of Budapest in early 1944; being deported with his mother by cattle car in June 1944 to Bergen-Belsen; developing pneumonia and not having access to much food while in the camp; being taken to Switzerland in late 1944; staying in a Red Cross hotel near Montreux; going to a children’s home in Heiden; immigrating with his mother to Palestine in 1945; and immigrating to the United States in March 1949. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Manny Mandel

Oral History

Emanuel Mandel, born in 1936 in Riga, Latvia, describes his family moving to Budapest, Hungary when he was three months old; his father’s work as a cantor; the anti-Jewish laws implemented in the 1930s; the German occupation of Budapest in early 1944; being deported with his mother by cattle car in June 1944 to Bergen-Belsen; developing pneumonia and not having access to much food while in the camp; being taken to Switzerland in late 1944; staying in a Red Cross hotel near Montreux; going to a children’s home in Heiden; immigrating with his mother to Palestine in 1945; and immigrating to the United States in March 1949. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Manny Mandel

Oral History

Emanuel Mandel, born in 1936 in Riga, Latvia, describes his family moving to Budapest, Hungary when he was three months old; his father’s work as a cantor; the anti-Jewish laws implemented in the 1930s; the German occupation of Budapest in early 1944; being deported with his mother by cattle car in June 1944 to Bergen-Belsen; developing pneumonia and not having access to much food while in the camp; being taken to Switzerland in late 1944; staying in a Red Cross hotel near Montreux; going to a children’s home in Heiden; immigrating with his mother to Palestine in 1945; and immigrating to the United States in March 1949. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Manny Mandel

Oral History

Emanuel Mandel, born in 1936 in Riga, Latvia, describes his family moving to Budapest, Hungary when he was three months old; his father’s work as a cantor; the anti-Jewish laws implemented in the 1930s; the German occupation of Budapest in early 1944; being deported with his mother by cattle car in June 1944 to Bergen-Belsen; developing pneumonia and not having access to much food while in the camp; being taken to Switzerland in late 1944; staying in a Red Cross hotel near Montreux; going to a children’s home in Heiden; immigrating with his mother to Palestine in 1945; and immigrating to the United States in March 1949. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Manny Mandel

Oral History

Emanuel Mandel, born in 1936 in Riga, Latvia, describes his family moving to Budapest, Hungary when he was three months old; his father’s work as a cantor; the anti-Jewish laws implemented in the 1930s; the German occupation of Budapest in early 1944; being deported with his mother by cattle car in June 1944 to Bergen-Belsen; developing pneumonia and not having access to much food while in the camp; being taken to Switzerland in late 1944; staying in a Red Cross hotel near Montreux; going to a children’s home in Heiden; immigrating with his mother to Palestine in 1945; and immigrating to the United States in March 1949. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Manny Mandel

Oral History

Emanuel Mandel, born in 1936 in Riga, Latvia, describes his family moving to Budapest, Hungary when he was three months old; his father’s work as a cantor; the anti-Jewish laws implemented in the 1930s; the German occupation of Budapest in early 1944; being deported with his mother by cattle car in June 1944 to Bergen-Belsen; developing pneumonia and not having access to much food while in the camp; being taken to Switzerland in late 1944; staying in a Red Cross hotel near Montreux; going to a children’s home in Heiden; immigrating with his mother to Palestine in 1945; and immigrating to the United States in March 1949. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Julius Menn

Oral History

Julius Menn, born on February 20, 1929, in Danzig, Germany (now Gdansk, Poland), discusses his family; immigrating with his family in 1935 to Palestine; settling in Tel Aviv; his family’s return to Poland in 1938; enrolling in a Polish school in Warsaw; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939; fleeing with his mother and sister to Bialystok, Poland and further east with other refugees; encountering the Soviet Army and being aided by a Jewish Soviet soldier who helped his family boarded a train for Vilnius, Lithuania, where they lived for a year; his father obtaining transit visas from Soviet authorities in the fall of 1940; his family’s travel by train through Kiev and Moscow to Odessa; traveling by ship from Odessa to Turkey and from there, traveling by train through Syria and Lebanon; arriving in Palestine in October 1940; serving in the Haganah (Jewish Military force in Palestine) as a teenager and later as a junior officer; going in 1947 to the United States to study at the University of California, Berkeley; returning to Palestine to serve in the Israeli War of Independence in 1948; and returning to the United States in 1950 to complete his education, and ultimately earning a PhD in toxicology. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Julius Menn

Oral History

Julius Menn, born on February 20, 1929, in Danzig, Germany (now Gdansk, Poland), discusses his family; immigrating with his family in 1935 to Palestine; settling in Tel Aviv; his family’s return to Poland in 1938; enrolling in a Polish school in Warsaw; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939; fleeing with his mother and sister to Bialystok, Poland and further east with other refugees; encountering the Soviet Army and being aided by a Jewish Soviet soldier who helped his family boarded a train for Vilnius, Lithuania, where they lived for a year; his father obtaining transit visas from Soviet authorities in the fall of 1940; his family’s travel by train through Kiev and Moscow to Odessa; traveling by ship from Odessa to Turkey and from there, traveling by train through Syria and Lebanon; arriving in Palestine in October 1940; serving in the Haganah (Jewish Military force in Palestine) as a teenager and later as a junior officer; going in 1947 to the United States to study at the University of California, Berkeley; returning to Palestine to serve in the Israeli War of Independence in 1948; and returning to the United States in 1950 to complete his education, and ultimately earning a PhD in toxicology. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Julius Menn

Oral History

Julius Menn, born on February 20, 1929, in Danzig, Germany (now Gdansk, Poland), discusses his family; immigrating with his family in 1935 to Palestine; settling in Tel Aviv; his family’s return to Poland in 1938; enrolling in a Polish school in Warsaw; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939; fleeing with his mother and sister to Bialystok, Poland and further east with other refugees; encountering the Soviet Army and being aided by a Jewish Soviet soldier who helped his family boarded a train for Vilnius, Lithuania, where they lived for a year; his father obtaining transit visas from Soviet authorities in the fall of 1940; his family’s travel by train through Kiev and Moscow to Odessa; traveling by ship from Odessa to Turkey and from there, traveling by train through Syria and Lebanon; arriving in Palestine in October 1940; serving in the Haganah (Jewish Military force in Palestine) as a teenager and later as a junior officer; going in 1947 to the United States to study at the University of California, Berkeley; returning to Palestine to serve in the Israeli War of Independence in 1948; and returning to the United States in 1950 to complete his education, and ultimately earning a PhD in toxicology. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Julius Menn

Oral History

Julius Menn, born on February 20, 1929, in Danzig, Germany (now Gdansk, Poland), discusses his family; immigrating with his family in 1935 to Palestine; settling in Tel Aviv; his family’s return to Poland in 1938; enrolling in a Polish school in Warsaw; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939; fleeing with his mother and sister to Bialystok, Poland and further east with other refugees; encountering the Soviet Army and being aided by a Jewish Soviet soldier who helped his family boarded a train for Vilnius, Lithuania, where they lived for a year; his father obtaining transit visas from Soviet authorities in the fall of 1940; his family’s travel by train through Kiev and Moscow to Odessa; traveling by ship from Odessa to Turkey and from there, traveling by train through Syria and Lebanon; arriving in Palestine in October 1940; serving in the Haganah (Jewish Military force in Palestine) as a teenager and later as a junior officer; going in 1947 to the United States to study at the University of California, Berkeley; returning to Palestine to serve in the Israeli War of Independence in 1948; and returning to the United States in 1950 to complete his education, and ultimately earning a PhD in toxicology. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Julius Menn

Oral History

Julius Menn, born on February 20, 1929, in Danzig, Germany (now Gdansk, Poland), discusses his family; immigrating with his family in 1935 to Palestine; settling in Tel Aviv; his family’s return to Poland in 1938; enrolling in a Polish school in Warsaw; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939; fleeing with his mother and sister to Bialystok, Poland and further east with other refugees; encountering the Soviet Army and being aided by a Jewish Soviet soldier who helped his family boarded a train for Vilnius, Lithuania, where they lived for a year; his father obtaining transit visas from Soviet authorities in the fall of 1940; his family’s travel by train through Kiev and Moscow to Odessa; traveling by ship from Odessa to Turkey and from there, traveling by train through Syria and Lebanon; arriving in Palestine in October 1940; serving in the Haganah (Jewish Military force in Palestine) as a teenager and later as a junior officer; going in 1947 to the United States to study at the University of California, Berkeley; returning to Palestine to serve in the Israeli War of Independence in 1948; and returning to the United States in 1950 to complete his education, and ultimately earning a PhD in toxicology. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Julius Menn

Oral History

Julius Menn, born on February 20, 1929, in Danzig, Germany (now Gdansk, Poland), discusses his family; immigrating with his family in 1935 to Palestine; settling in Tel Aviv; his family’s return to Poland in 1938; enrolling in a Polish school in Warsaw; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939; fleeing with his mother and sister to Bialystok, Poland and further east with other refugees; encountering the Soviet Army and being aided by a Jewish Soviet soldier who helped his family boarded a train for Vilnius, Lithuania, where they lived for a year; his father obtaining transit visas from Soviet authorities in the fall of 1940; his family’s travel by train through Kiev and Moscow to Odessa; traveling by ship from Odessa to Turkey and from there, traveling by train through Syria and Lebanon; arriving in Palestine in October 1940; serving in the Haganah (Jewish Military force in Palestine) as a teenager and later as a junior officer; going in 1947 to the United States to study at the University of California, Berkeley; returning to Palestine to serve in the Israeli War of Independence in 1948; and returning to the United States in 1950 to complete his education, and ultimately earning a PhD in toxicology. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Julius Menn

Oral History

Julius Menn, born on February 20, 1929, in Danzig, Germany (now Gdansk, Poland), discusses his family; immigrating with his family in 1935 to Palestine; settling in Tel Aviv; his family’s return to Poland in 1938; enrolling in a Polish school in Warsaw; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939; fleeing with his mother and sister to Bialystok, Poland and further east with other refugees; encountering the Soviet Army and being aided by a Jewish Soviet soldier who helped his family boarded a train for Vilnius, Lithuania, where they lived for a year; his father obtaining transit visas from Soviet authorities in the fall of 1940; his family’s travel by train through Kiev and Moscow to Odessa; traveling by ship from Odessa to Turkey and from there, traveling by train through Syria and Lebanon; arriving in Palestine in October 1940; serving in the Haganah (Jewish Military force in Palestine) as a teenager and later as a junior officer; going in 1947 to the United States to study at the University of California, Berkeley; returning to Palestine to serve in the Israeli War of Independence in 1948; and returning to the United States in 1950 to complete his education, and ultimately earning a PhD in toxicology. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Julius Menn

Oral History

Julius Menn, born on February 20, 1929, in Danzig, Germany (now Gdansk, Poland), discusses his family; immigrating with his family in 1935 to Palestine; settling in Tel Aviv; his family’s return to Poland in 1938; enrolling in a Polish school in Warsaw; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939; fleeing with his mother and sister to Bialystok, Poland and further east with other refugees; encountering the Soviet Army and being aided by a Jewish Soviet soldier who helped his family boarded a train for Vilnius, Lithuania, where they lived for a year; his father obtaining transit visas from Soviet authorities in the fall of 1940; his family’s travel by train through Kiev and Moscow to Odessa; traveling by ship from Odessa to Turkey and from there, traveling by train through Syria and Lebanon; arriving in Palestine in October 1940; serving in the Haganah (Jewish Military force in Palestine) as a teenager and later as a junior officer; going in 1947 to the United States to study at the University of California, Berkeley; returning to Palestine to serve in the Israeli War of Independence in 1948; and returning to the United States in 1950 to complete his education, and ultimately earning a PhD in toxicology. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Julius Menn

Oral History

Julius Menn, born on February 20, 1929, in Danzig, Germany (now Gdansk, Poland), discusses his family; immigrating with his family in 1935 to Palestine; settling in Tel Aviv; his family’s return to Poland in 1938; enrolling in a Polish school in Warsaw; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939; fleeing with his mother and sister to Bialystok, Poland and further east with other refugees; encountering the Soviet Army and being aided by a Jewish Soviet soldier who helped his family boarded a train for Vilnius, Lithuania, where they lived for a year; his father obtaining transit visas from Soviet authorities in the fall of 1940; his family’s travel by train through Kiev and Moscow to Odessa; traveling by ship from Odessa to Turkey and from there, traveling by train through Syria and Lebanon; arriving in Palestine in October 1940; serving in the Haganah (Jewish Military force in Palestine) as a teenager and later as a junior officer; going in 1947 to the United States to study at the University of California, Berkeley; returning to Palestine to serve in the Israeli War of Independence in 1948; and returning to the United States in 1950 to complete his education, and ultimately earning a PhD in toxicology. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with David Bayer

Oral History

David Bayer, born on September 27, 1922 in Kozienice, Poland, describes his father, who owned a shoe factory before the war; his mother, who managed the household and helped in the factory; having a comfortable childhood; his sister and brother; the German occupation of his town and the anti-Jewish restrictions; being relocated to a ghetto; working on an irrigation project; the deportation of his family to Treblinka, where they perished; being transported to Pionki and put to work in a factory that manufactured gunpowder; being taken in 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being selected for slave labor and tattooed with a prisoner number; working in the coal mines at Jaworzno; being evacuated in the winter of 1944-1945 and sent on a death march; escaping into the forest and being found by Russian soldiers; returning to Kozienice; traveling to Panama and then to Israel, where he immediately joined the army; fighting in Israel’s War for Independence; returning to Panama; and immigrating to the United States in 1955. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Theodora Basch Vrančić Klayman

Oral History

Oral history interview with Theodora Basch Vrančić Klayman

Oral History

Oral history interview with Theodora Basch Vrančić Klayman

Oral History

Oral history interview Joel Nommick

Oral History

Oral history interview with Agi Geva

Oral History

Oral history interview with Agi Geva

Oral History

Oral history interview with Agi Geva

Oral History

Oral history interview with Albert Garih

Oral History

Albert Garih, born June 24, 1938 in Paris, France, discusses being a twin (his twin brother died in infancy); his parents Benjamin and Claire (née Alfandari) Garih, who were both natives of Constantinople (now Istanbul), Turkey and moved to Paris in 1923; his father’s work in a garment factory; his mother caring for Albert and his two sisters Jacqueline and Gilberte; the German invasion of France in May 1940; fleeing south and returning soon after to Paris; the new anti-Jewish measures; the deportation of his father to a forced labor camp in the Channel Islands in September 1943; hiding with a family (Madame Aimée Galop and her husband) for six months between 1943 and 1944; returning home and fleeing again when the French police, who were meant to arrest them, agreed to report that they were not home if the family left immediately; being sent with his sisters to live in Catholic boarding schools in a Paris suburb; the liberation of Paris and his mother retrieving her children as soon as the train service was restored; and his father returning from Dixmude (Diksmuide), Belgium on the morning of Rosh Hashanah. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Sam Ponczak

Oral History

Oral history interview with Steven Fenves

Oral History

Steven Fenves, born in 1931 in Subotica, Yugoslavia (now in Serbia), discusses his childhood and family; the day when Germany attacked Yugoslavia; the Hungarian occupation of Yugoslavia and the confiscation of his family's property; being forced to quarter Hungarian troops in his family's apartment; antisemitic laws and discrimination against Croats and Serbs during the Hungarian occupation; the changes that occurred when Germany occupied Hungary; the deportation of his father; being forced into the Subotica ghetto; being sent to the nearby transit camp of Bácsalmás; being deported to Auschwitz and separated from his mother, whom he never saw again; life in the children's barracks at Auschwitz; being picked to be a translator because of his knowledge of German; his involvement in the resistance and black market at Auschwitz; his deportation to Niederorschel, a subcamp of Buchenwald; a death march from Niederorschel to Buchenwald; the liberation of Buchenwald by American forces; returning to Subotica and reuniting with his sister and father; his father's death three months after his return; returning to school in Subotica and life in Yugoslavia under communism; going to school in Paris, France; and immigrating to the United States. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Peter Feigl

Oral History

Oral history interview with Frank Liebermann

Oral History

Oral history interview with Josie Traum

Oral History

Oral history interview with Marcel Drimer

Oral History

Marcel Drimer, born on May 1, 1934 in Drohobycz, Poland (now Drohobych, Ukraine), discusses his childhood; his father Jacob, who worked as an accountant in a lumber factory; his mother Laura, who raised Marcel and his younger sister Irena; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939 and the fall of Drohobycz under Soviet control in accordance with the German-Soviet Pact; attending a Russian kindergarten; the German occupation of Drohobycz in 1941; being forced into a ghetto along with his family in August 1942; the deportation of much of his family to camps; hiding in secret bunkers during the roundups and deportations; escaping with his family before the liquidation of the ghetto; going to the small village Mlynki Szkolnikowe; hiding with a Ukrainian family in August 1943; being liberated in August 1944 by the Soviet army; the effects of hunger and physical deprivation; moving with his family to Walbrzych; graduating from an engineering college in Wroclaw; and immigrating to the United States in 1961. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Michel Margosis

Oral History

Michel Margosis, born on September 2, 1928 in Brussels, Belgium, discusses his Russian parents; his memories of the beginning of the war; the German invasion of Belgium in 1940; fleeing with his family to Southern France; being placed in an internment camp for refugees; his parents’ decision to escape the camp; going by train to a friend’s farm elsewhere in France, where the family hid for a year; fleeing with his family to Marseille, France; escaping over the Pyrenees into Spain; being separated from his family and sent to an orphanage; reuniting with his mother and sister after two weeks; being sent to the United States in 1943 on the Serpa Pinto; and reuniting with his family in the US after a few years. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Sheila Perec Etons Bernard

Oral History

Oral history interview with Isak M. Danon

Oral History

Oral history interview with Nesse G. Godin

Oral History

Oral history interview with Ruth Greifer

Oral History

Oral history interview with Regina Spiegel and Sam Spiegel

Oral History

Oral history interview with Manya Friedman

Oral History

Oral history interview with Rabbi Jacob G. Wiener

Oral History

Oral history interview with Susan Taube

Oral History

Oral history interview with Martin Weiss

Oral History

Martin Weiss, born on January 28, 1929 in Polana, Czechoslovakia (possibly present day Veľká Poľana, Slovakia), discusses his family; his father who was a subsistence farmer and meat distributor; his mother who managed their orthodox Jewish household and raised nine children; the Hungarian control over his hometown beginning in 1939; the anti-Jewish policies; the conscription of Jewish men, including his two brothers, into slave labor battalions and sent to the Russian front; his father managing to keep his business; the deportation of his family in April 1944 to the Munkacs ghetto (in present day Mukacheve, Ukraine); being forced to perform labor in a brick factory; the deportation of his family to Auschwitz-Birkenau; the selection process; being transported with his father to Melk, a subcamp of the labor camp Mauthausen; his father’s death; being sent on a forced march to Gunskirchen; being liberated by the United States Army on May 5, 1945; life after the war; living in Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic with his sister; and immigrating to the United States in 1946. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Margit Meissner

Oral History

Oral history interview with Martin Weiss

Oral History

Martin Weiss, born on January 28, 1929 in Polana, Czechoslovakia (possibly present day Veľká Poľana, Slovakia), discusses his family; his father who was a subsistence farmer and meat distributor; his mother who managed their orthodox Jewish household and raised nine children; the Hungarian control over his hometown beginning in 1939; the anti-Jewish policies; the conscription of Jewish men, including his two brothers, into slave labor battalions and sent to the Russian front; his father managing to keep his business; the deportation of his family in April 1944 to the Munkacs ghetto (in present day Mukacheve, Ukraine); being forced to perform labor in a brick factory; the deportation of his family to Auschwitz-Birkenau; the selection process; being transported with his father to Melk, a subcamp of the labor camp Mauthausen; his father’s death; being sent on a forced march to Gunskirchen; being liberated by the United States Army on May 5, 1945; life after the war; living in Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic with his sister; and immigrating to the United States in 1946. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Isak M. Danon

Oral History

Oral history interview with Elizabeth Strassburger

Oral History

Oral history interview with Sheila Perec Etons Bernard

Oral History

Oral history interview with Michel Margosis

Oral History

Michel Margosis, born on September 2, 1928 in Brussels, Belgium, discusses his Russian parents; his memories of the beginning of the war; the German invasion of Belgium in 1940; fleeing with his family to Southern France; being placed in an internment camp for refugees; his parents’ decision to escape the camp; going by train to a friend’s farm elsewhere in France, where the family hid for a year; fleeing with his family to Marseille, France; escaping over the Pyrenees into Spain; being separated from his family and sent to an orphanage; reuniting with his mother and sister after two weeks; being sent to the United States in 1943 on the Serpa Pinto; and reuniting with his family in the US after a few years. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral History interview with Rose-Helene Spreiregen

Oral History

Oral History interview with Alfred Munzer

Oral History

Oral History interview with Frank Cohn

Oral History

Oral history interview with Josie Traum

Oral History

Oral history interview with Fred Kahn

Oral History

Oral history interview with Joel Nommick

Oral History

Oral history interview with Harry Markowicz

Oral History

Harry Markowicz, born on August 9, 1937 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his Polish parents; his older siblings; a family friend who was a policeman and warned the Markowicz family of an imminent outbreak of violence against Jews throughout Germany in 1938; fleeing to Antwerp, Belgium shortly before Kristallnacht; the German invasion of Belgium in May 1940; his family’s attempt to cross the border into France and being denied access; renting a beach house in La Panne, Belgium; his family’s move to Brussels, Belgium in 1941; going into hiding with his family in 1942; being hidden separately from his siblings; being hidden with several different families, in children’s homes in Brussels, and in the Ardennes; being taken in by the Vanderlinden family and living with them until the liberation of Brussels in September 1944; the survival of his immediate family and the fate of his extended family; living in Brussels after the war; and his family immigrating to the United States. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Rae Goldfarb

Oral History

Oral history interview with Martin Weiss

Oral History

Martin Weiss, born on January 28, 1929 in Polana, Czechoslovakia (possibly present day Veľká Poľana, Slovakia), discusses his family; his father who was a subsistence farmer and meat distributor; his mother who managed their orthodox Jewish household and raised nine children; the Hungarian control over his hometown beginning in 1939; the anti-Jewish policies; the conscription of Jewish men, including his two brothers, into slave labor battalions and sent to the Russian front; his father managing to keep his business; the deportation of his family in April 1944 to the Munkacs ghetto (in present day Mukacheve, Ukraine); being forced to perform labor in a brick factory; the deportation of his family to Auschwitz-Birkenau; the selection process; being transported with his father to Melk, a subcamp of the labor camp Mauthausen; his father’s death; being sent on a forced march to Gunskirchen; being liberated by the United States Army on May 5, 1945; life after the war; living in Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic with his sister; and immigrating to the United States in 1946. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Alex Schiffman-Shilo

Oral History

Alex Shilo, born December 15, 1933 in Strasbourg, France, discusses his Jewish parents who had emigrated from Galicia, Poland; his father Feibisch, who was a traveling salesman who sold leather goods; his mother Henia Tauba, who was a Hebrew teacher and worked as a seamstress for Feibisch’s business; his older sister Madeleine; his family’s move to Paris in 1938; the German invasion of France in May 1940; fleeing with his family to Issoudun; his family’s move a few months later to Villefranche-de-Rouergue to stay with relatives; his mother becoming ill and her death in May 1941 from cancer; his Aunt Cylli living with the family in order to look after Alex and his sister; the several other Jewish families living in the small village; the good relations between the Jewish and the non-Jewish residents; how on several occasions, local French police officials warned the Jews of impending roundups and advised them to go into hiding; hiding for several nights in the home of his science teacher during one of these roundups; the increased frequency of the roundups and deportations of Jews, forcing Alex and his family to leave home on several occasions and go into hiding until the immediate danger had past; his immediate family surviving the war while many of his other relatives were murdered by the Germans and their collaborators; returning to Paris after liberation; having to endure a legal battle to return to their apartment; attending a Jewish boarding high school, then the Institut National Agronomique, where he received a master of science degree in agriculture; immigrating to Israel in 1959; and moving to the United States in 1989. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Sylvia Rozines

Oral History

Oral history interview with Marcel Drimer

Oral History

Marcel Drimer, born on May 1, 1934 in Drohobycz, Poland (now Drohobych, Ukraine), discusses his childhood; his father Jacob, who worked as an accountant in a lumber factory; his mother Laura, who raised Marcel and his younger sister Irena; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939 and the fall of Drohobycz under Soviet control in accordance with the German-Soviet Pact; attending a Russian kindergarten; the German occupation of Drohobycz in 1941; being forced into a ghetto along with his family in August 1942; the deportation of much of his family to camps; hiding in secret bunkers during the roundups and deportations; escaping with his family before the liquidation of the ghetto; going to the small village Mlynki Szkolnikowe; hiding with a Ukrainian family in August 1943; being liberated in August 1944 by the Soviet army; the effects of hunger and physical deprivation; moving with his family to Walbrzych; graduating from an engineering college in Wroclaw; and immigrating to the United States in 1961. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Frank Liebermann

Oral History

Oral history interview with Rita Rubinstein

Oral History

Rita Rubinstein (née Frieda Rifka Lifschitz), born on December 12, 1936 in Văscăuti, Romania (now Vashkivtsi, Ukraine), discusses her parents Abraham and Tabel Lifschitz; the dry goods store and small factory her father and uncle operated; their home which was shared with other relatives; the Soviet occupation of Văscăuti in 1940; the drafting of young men, including her father, into the army; the German invasion of Soviet territories in June 1941; Romanian soldiers entering Văscăuti and ordering all Jews to prepare to leave; being detained with her family and other Jews in a large building before being taken by Romanian authorities to Mogilev-Podolsky in Transnistria and then to the Shargorot ghetto; living in the ghetto for three years; attending a small class in the ghetto; the hardships in the ghetto; the liberation of Shargorot in early 1944; returning to Văscăuti; attending a Ukrainian school in Văscăuti; finding out that her father had been killed fighting in the Soviet army; the fates of her maternal grandparents and her mother’s siblings; escaping Communist Romania after her mother and her aunt obtained false papers stating that they were born in Poland; traveling from Romania to the displaced persons camp in Feldafing; contracting tuberculosis and being sent to a sanitarium for nine months; her mother remarrying; and immigrating with her mother and stepfather in 1949 to the United States. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Jacqueline Mendels Birn

Oral History

Jacqueline Mendels Birn, born April 23, 1935 in Paris, France, discusses her father Frits, who ran a food import-export business; her mother Ellen, who took care of Jacqueline and her older sister Manuela; the German invasion of France in May 1940; the Aryanization program; her father being forced to sell his share of the business; restrictions on Jews; deportations to Drancy and Auschwitz in June 1942; leaving Paris with her family on July 30, 1942 and going to the Vichy-controlled southern region of France; staying in the upstairs rooms of a house with no electricity or water for 29 months; her father bartering for food; her mother giving birth to a son in August 1943; the liberation of Paris and returning to their family apartment in November 1944; meeting her American husband, Richard, while he was studying in Paris; going to the United States in 1958; getting married; and having two children. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Susan Darvas

Oral History

Oral history interview with Al Munzer

Oral History

Alfred Munzer, born on November 23, 1941 in The Hague, the Netherlands, discusses his father Simcha, who owned a men’s tailoring business and his mother Gisele, who remained at home to look after Alfred and his two older sisters Eva and Leah; going into hiding in September 1942; his sisters’ placement with the friend of a neighbor (they were ultimately denounced and sent to Westerbork, after which Eva and Leah were deported to Auschwitz, where they were killed); being put in the care of a family friend named Annie Madna, who placed him with her sister; how Annie’s sister became too nervous to keep him and placed Alfred with her ex-husband, Tolé; living in Tolé’s home for three years, and being looked after by his housekeeper Mima Saïna, who became his surrogate mother; the deportation of his parents to Vught then Auschwitz in 1943; the transfer of his father to several camps, including Mauthausen and Ebensee, and his death two months after liberation while he was receiving medical treatment; the transfer of his mother from Auschwitz to work at a factory and several other camps before she was sent to Ravensbrück and evacuated by the Swedish Red Cross; reuniting with his mother when he was four years old and having no idea who she was; living in Holland until they moved to Belgium in 1952; and immigrating to the United States in 1958. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Steven J. Fenves

Oral History

Steven Fenves, born in 1931 in Subotica, Yugoslavia (now in Serbia), discusses his childhood and family; the day when Germany attacked Yugoslavia; the Hungarian occupation of Yugoslavia and the confiscation of his family's property; being forced to quarter Hungarian troops in his family's apartment; antisemitic laws and discrimination against Croats and Serbs during the Hungarian occupation; the changes that occurred when Germany occupied Hungary; the deportation of his father; being forced into the Subotica ghetto; being sent to the nearby transit camp of Bácsalmás; being deported to Auschwitz and separated from his mother, whom he never saw again; life in the children's barracks at Auschwitz; being picked to be a translator because of his knowledge of German; his involvement in the resistance and black market at Auschwitz; his deportation to Niederorschel, a subcamp of Buchenwald; a death march from Niederorschel to Buchenwald; the liberation of Buchenwald by American forces; returning to Subotica and reuniting with his sister and father; his father's death three months after his return; returning to school in Subotica and life in Yugoslavia under communism; going to school in Paris, France; and immigrating to the United States. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Freddie Traum

Oral History

Oral history interview with Morris Rosen

Oral History

Morris (Moniek) Rosen, born on November 10, 1922 in Czestochowa, Poland, discusses his family; his nine siblings; growing up in Dąbrowa Górnicza; his father Jacob, who owned a general store; attending both public and Jewish schools; the forced closing of his father’s store by the antisemitic community; the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939; fleeing eastward and being caught near the Vistula River by advancing German troops; returning to Dąbrowa Górnicza; the severe restrictions placed on the Jewish community; working for the German construction office as a carpenter and bricklayer; the deportation of many Jews, including his parents, in August 1942 to Auschwitz; being deported later on to several camps; being evacuated in February 1945 to the Kittlitztreben camp; being sent on a death march to the Buchenwald concentration camp; walking more than eight hours a day in the bitter cold; going to Theresienstadt and being liberated by Soviet troops; reuniting with members of his extended family; his parents and five of his siblings perishing in the Holocaust; spending several years in displaced persons camps in Austria and Germany; and immigrating to the United States in 1949. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Sam Ponczak

Oral History

Oral history interview with Arye Ephrath

Oral History

Oral history interview with Michel Margosis

Oral History

Michel Margosis, born on September 2, 1928 in Brussels, Belgium, discusses his Russian parents; his memories of the beginning of the war; the German invasion of Belgium in 1940; fleeing with his family to Southern France; being placed in an internment camp for refugees; his parents’ decision to escape the camp; going by train to a friend’s farm elsewhere in France, where the family hid for a year; fleeing with his family to Marseille, France; escaping over the Pyrenees into Spain; being separated from his family and sent to an orphanage; reuniting with his mother and sister after two weeks; being sent to the United States in 1943 on the Serpa Pinto; and reuniting with his family in the US after a few years. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Gideon Frieder

Oral History

Gideon Frieder, born on September 30, 1937 in Zvolen, Slovakia, discusses his family; moving from Zvolen to Nové Mesto, Slovakia, at the beginning of the war because his father (Rabbi Abba Frieder) was offered a position there; the German occupation of Slovakia; the deportation of his grandparents early in the war; his father’s work in Slovakia’s underground “Working Group” (a secret Jewish rescue organization) and his responsibility for communications with the Slovak authorities; the Slovak uprising against the Nazis in 1944 and fleeing with his mother and sister from Nové Mesto to Banská Bystrica, while his father fled separately; going with his mother and sister to the mountains, where they were caught in a massacre at Staré Hory (Czech Republic); the murder of his mother and sister during this massacre; surviving the massacre but being injured; being helped by a Jewish partisan who eventually took him to the village of Bully (now part of Donovaly, Slovakia), where he was placed with a sympathetic non-Jewish family; remaining in Bully until 1945, when the area was liberated by Romanian troops that fought as part of the Soviet army; reuniting later with his father, who had also survived the war; his father’s remarriage and death in 1946; and moving with his stepmother to Israel, where he remained until 1975 when he immigrated to the United States. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Ralph Berets

Oral History

Oral history interview with Julie Keefer

Oral History

Oral history interview with Albert Garih

Oral History

Albert Garih, born June 24, 1938 in Paris, France, discusses being a twin (his twin brother died in infancy); his parents Benjamin and Claire (née Alfandari) Garih, who were both natives of Constantinople (now Istanbul), Turkey and moved to Paris in 1923; his father’s work in a garment factory; his mother caring for Albert and his two sisters Jacqueline and Gilberte; the German invasion of France in May 1940; fleeing south and returning soon after to Paris; the new anti-Jewish measures; the deportation of his father to a forced labor camp in the Channel Islands in September 1943; hiding with a family (Madame Aimée Galop and her husband) for six months between 1943 and 1944; returning home and fleeing again when the French police, who were meant to arrest them, agreed to report that they were not home if the family left immediately; being sent with his sisters to live in Catholic boarding schools in a Paris suburb; the liberation of Paris and his mother retrieving her children as soon as the train service was restored; and his father returning from Dixmude (Diksmuide), Belgium on the morning of Rosh Hashanah. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Jill B. Pauly

Oral History

Jill Pauly (née Gisela Renate Berg), born on May 1, 1933 in Cologne, Germany, discusses growing up in a small town called Lechenich, where her family had lived since the 17th century; her father Joseph, who was a respected cattle dealer; her mother Klara, who tended to the home and took care of Jill and her older sister Inge; having a close-knit, observant Jewish family; fleeing to Cologne with her family in 1938 after they were warned of impending pogroms; the ransacking of their home during Kristallnacht; the internment of her father, uncle, and cousin after they fled illegally to Holland; her family securing visas for her father, uncle, and cousin for Kenya; leaving for Kenya via Genoa, Italy in May 1939 along with her mother, sister, and several other family members; settling in rented house in Nairobi; the beginning of the war in September 1939, and the British government arresting all adult male foreign nationals, including her father and uncles; how they were imprisoned for one week then released on the condition that they work on the farms of British citizens who were called away for war service; her family later purchasing a 375-acre farm where they could see Mt. Kenya and Mt. Kilimanjaro; her family’s immigration to the United States in 1947; her family purchasing a chicken farm and dairy business in Vineland, NJ; completing her high school education and graduating from a business college; and getting married in 1957 to Kurt Pauly (a fellow survivor from Nazi Germany). [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Kurt Pauly

Oral History

Oral history interview with Halina Peabody

Oral History

Halina Yasharoff Peabody (née Litman), born on December 12, 1932 in Krakow, Poland, describes growing up in Krakow in a liberal Jewish family; her father Izak, who was a dentist, and her mother Olga, who was a champion swimmer; her younger sister Ewa; the Soviet invasion of Poland in the autumn of 1939, at which time Halina was living in Zaleszczyki (now Zalishchyky, Ukraine), which came under Russian occupation; her father crossing into Romania as he feared being conscripted into the Russian army; the deportation of her father to Siberia when he attempted to return to his family; the German invasion in 1941, at which time harsh anti-Jewish laws were put in place; the roundups of Jews for relocation to ghettos; being forced along with her mother and sister to move to Tluste, which was turned into a ghetto; her mother purchasing documents from a Catholic priest that allowed her and her daughters to assume non-Jewish identities; moving to Jaroslaw, Poland; passing as Catholics with a woman who took in boarders; her mother’s work in a German military camp kitchen, which allowed her to obtain a German identification card; a bomb falling on the house where they had been staying; her hand being permanently injured; the liberation of Jaroslaw by Soviet forces in July 1944; reuniting with her father and settling in London, England; and immigrating to the United States in 1968. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Fred Flatow

Oral History

Oral history interview with Fritz Gluckstein

Oral History

Oral history interview with Louise Lawerence-Israels

Oral History

Oral history interview with Margit Meissner

Oral History

Oral history interview with Ester Starobin

Oral History

Oral history interview with Peter Gorog

Oral History

Oral history interview with Anna Grosz

Oral History

Oral history interview with Ruth Kohn

Oral History

Oral history interview with Nesse G. Godin

Oral History

Nesse Godin (née Galperin), born on March 28, 1928 in Siauliai, Lithuania, discusses growing up in an observant Jewish family; the German invasions of Poland in September 1939; Siauliai coming under the control of the Soviet Union; the German occupation beginning in June 1941; the Nazis’ policies of discrimination toward Jews during the occupation; being forced with her family to move into the Siauliai ghetto; the mass deportation of Jews, including her father, on November 5, 1943; being deported to Stutthof in 1944; being separated from her mother and brothers; being sent to several other labor camps; being sent on a death march in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on March 10, 1945; recuperating in a makeshift hospital in Chinow (Chynowie), Poland; being taken care of by a foster mother; going to Łódź, Poland, where Nesse met a woman from Siauliai who told her that her mother Sara was alive and was somewhere on the border between Germany and Poland; reunting with her mother; getting married to Yankel (Jack) Godin; relocating to Feldafing displaced persons camp; reuniting with her brother Jechezkel; and immigrating to the United States in 1950. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Nesse G. Godin

Oral History

Nesse Godin (née Galperin), born on March 28, 1928 in Siauliai, Lithuania, discusses growing up in an observant Jewish family; the German invasions of Poland in September 1939; Siauliai coming under the control of the Soviet Union; the German occupation beginning in June 1941; the Nazis’ policies of discrimination toward Jews during the occupation; being forced with her family to move into the Siauliai ghetto; the mass deportation of Jews, including her father, on November 5, 1943; being deported to Stutthof in 1944; being separated from her mother and brothers; being sent to several other labor camps; being sent on a death march in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on March 10, 1945; recuperating in a makeshift hospital in Chinow (Chynowie), Poland; being taken care of by a foster mother; going to Łódź, Poland, where Nesse met a woman from Siauliai who told her that her mother Sara was alive and was somewhere on the border between Germany and Poland; reunting with her mother; getting married to Yankel (Jack) Godin; relocating to Feldafing displaced persons camp; reuniting with her brother Jechezkel; and immigrating to the United States in 1950. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Nesse G. Godin

Oral History

Nesse Godin (née Galperin), born on March 28, 1928 in Siauliai, Lithuania, discusses growing up in an observant Jewish family; the German invasions of Poland in September 1939; Siauliai coming under the control of the Soviet Union; the German occupation beginning in June 1941; the Nazis’ policies of discrimination toward Jews during the occupation; being forced with her family to move into the Siauliai ghetto; the mass deportation of Jews, including her father, on November 5, 1943; being deported to Stutthof in 1944; being separated from her mother and brothers; being sent to several other labor camps; being sent on a death march in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on March 10, 1945; recuperating in a makeshift hospital in Chinow (Chynowie), Poland; being taken care of by a foster mother; going to Łódź, Poland, where Nesse met a woman from Siauliai who told her that her mother Sara was alive and was somewhere on the border between Germany and Poland; reunting with her mother; getting married to Yankel (Jack) Godin; relocating to Feldafing displaced persons camp; reuniting with her brother Jechezkel; and immigrating to the United States in 1950. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Nesse G. Godin

Oral History

Nesse Godin (née Galperin), born on March 28, 1928 in Siauliai, Lithuania, discusses growing up in an observant Jewish family; the German invasions of Poland in September 1939; Siauliai coming under the control of the Soviet Union; the German occupation beginning in June 1941; the Nazis’ policies of discrimination toward Jews during the occupation; being forced with her family to move into the Siauliai ghetto; the mass deportation of Jews, including her father, on November 5, 1943; being deported to Stutthof in 1944; being separated from her mother and brothers; being sent to several other labor camps; being sent on a death march in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on March 10, 1945; recuperating in a makeshift hospital in Chinow (Chynowie), Poland; being taken care of by a foster mother; going to Łódź, Poland, where Nesse met a woman from Siauliai who told her that her mother Sara was alive and was somewhere on the border between Germany and Poland; reunting with her mother; getting married to Yankel (Jack) Godin; relocating to Feldafing displaced persons camp; reuniting with her brother Jechezkel; and immigrating to the United States in 1950. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Nesse G. Godin

Oral History

Nesse Godin (née Galperin), born on March 28, 1928 in Siauliai, Lithuania, discusses growing up in an observant Jewish family; the German invasions of Poland in September 1939; Siauliai coming under the control of the Soviet Union; the German occupation beginning in June 1941; the Nazis’ policies of discrimination toward Jews during the occupation; being forced with her family to move into the Siauliai ghetto; the mass deportation of Jews, including her father, on November 5, 1943; being deported to Stutthof in 1944; being separated from her mother and brothers; being sent to several other labor camps; being sent on a death march in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on March 10, 1945; recuperating in a makeshift hospital in Chinow (Chynowie), Poland; being taken care of by a foster mother; going to Łódź, Poland, where Nesse met a woman from Siauliai who told her that her mother Sara was alive and was somewhere on the border between Germany and Poland; reunting with her mother; getting married to Yankel (Jack) Godin; relocating to Feldafing displaced persons camp; reuniting with her brother Jechezkel; and immigrating to the United States in 1950. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]

Oral history interview with Nesse G. Godin

Oral History

Nesse Godin (née Galperin), born on March 28, 1928 in Siauliai, Lithuania, discusses growing up in an observant Jewish family; the German invasions of Poland in September 1939; Siauliai coming under the control of the Soviet Union; the German occupation beginning in June 1941; the Nazis’ policies of discrimination toward Jews during the occupation; being forced with her family to move into the Siauliai ghetto; the mass deportation of Jews, including her father, on November 5, 1943; being deported to Stutthof in 1944; being separated from her mother and brothers; being sent to several other labor camps; being sent on a death march in January 1945; being liberated by the Soviet Army on March 10, 1945; recuperating in a makeshift hospital in Chinow (Chynowie), Poland; being taken care of by a foster mother; going to Łódź, Poland, where Nesse met a woman from Siauliai who told her that her mother Sara was alive and was somewhere on the border between Germany and Poland; reunting with her mother; getting married to Yankel (Jack) Godin; relocating to Feldafing displaced persons camp; reuniting with her brother Jechezkel; and immigrating to the United States in 1950. [Note: this summary may not reflect the entirety of the interview; it may also contain additional biographical information that is not discussed in the interview.]