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Oral history interview with Gerald Averback

Oral History | Digitized | Accession Number: 2017.264.1 | RG Number: RG-50.106.0262

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    Oral history interview with Gerald Averback
    Transcript
    The following is the United States Holocaust Memorial
    Museum interview with Gerald Averback.
    It is being conducted on October 28, 2016 by Gail Schwartz
    and is taking place over the telephone at the museum
    and in Saskatoon, Canada.
    This is track number one.
    What is your full name?
    My full name is Gerald Isidore Averback.
    Averback is spelled A-V-E-R-B-A-C-K.
    And what is the name that you were born with?
    I was born Averbuch, and it's spelled A-V-E-R-B-U-C-H.
    And where were you born?
    I was born in the province of Bessarabia, that's Romania,
    at my grandparent's place.
    And they were living in the village or town of Soroca.
    And that's where you were born?
    That's where I was born, but we lived
    in the other side of Romania.
    And they called it Transylvania in the city of Oradea Mare--
    that's in Romania, Oradea Mare.
    And the Hungarians called it Nagyvárad--
    nag meaning big-- Nagyvárad.
    And let's talk a little bit about your parents
    and their background.
    What was your father's name?
    His name was Samuel, S-A-M-U-E-L.
    And my father was born in Ukraine,
    that was before World War One.
    And they moved, I don't know when,
    his family moved to Romania.
    And I was told the reason they moved because they really
    wanted to go to America.
    And from Romania, Constanta is the port
    especially after World War One, they could--
    many people moved to the USA.
    So that's where they were.
    And then his brother moved on to Canada,
    and two brothers-- there were two brothers,
    they stayed in Romania.
    And then they married girls in Romania
    and they stayed in Romania.
    What kind of work did your father do?
    My father and his brother had a clothing store.
    And they also-- this had happened
    during the war, World War Two, people
    had approached them from Italy to set up
    a plant to have men's shirts.
    Because in those days if you needed a shirt
    you went to a tailor, and he did.
    But this was, for the first time, it's ready-made shirts.
    So they actually when the war broke out the money
    came from Italy.
    They set that up and apparently they were extremely successful,
    because it was very reasonably priced.
    But the material came from Italy and the Italians
    owned 80% of the factory.
    But the Germans stopped that because Jews were not
    supposed to own anything, whatever it is.
    So they were approximately three-and-a-half years
    in operation.
    But very successful because the demand was great.
    And your mother's name?
    Is Esther.
    And her maiden name was Elgurt, E-L-G-U-R-T.
    And she was born it was pronounced [PLACE NAME],,
    but that's a village in Bessarabia right close
    to the river Dniester.
    In fact, just a mile from the river Dniester.
    And the river Dniester divided this Bessarabia from Ukraine.
    And so let's talk a little bit about extended family.
    You said your--
    I know the relative who went to Canada.
    Did you have any other extended family in the area?
    Well, not on my father's side.
    My mother's side were all residing in Romania, not
    outside Romania.
    Yeah.
    OK, so let's go back to your earliest memories.
    For instance, where did you go to school?
    What kind of school was it?
    Yeah, well, I just went to [INAUDIBLE]
    kindergarten and school.
    And that was of course Romania, then became Hungary.
    Yeah.
    So I went to school all the way until I was about 13
    with no interruptions at all.
    Until 1943?
    Correct.
    OK, let's talk a little bit, though, about your life
    before 1943.
    First of all, do you have any siblings,
    or were you an only child?
    No, never had any siblings.
    OK, so you were an only child.
    And what kind of neighborhood did you live in?
    Was it a mixed neighborhood?
    It was a mixed neighborhood.
    It wasn't a Jewish neighborhood.
    It was a mixed, and nothing--
    well many people there were originally
    of course Hungarians.
    And during the Austrian Hungarian World War
    One, many of them--
    talking about the elderly gentleman,
    they were part of the war.
    So some were captains, and although there
    was no distinction during the Austrian Hungarian period
    of time, World War One.
    And so my friends were their kids.
    And so nothing eventful--
    Was your family very religious or secular?
    That's a good question.
    Originally, I would say no.
    But during the war more so yes.
    And so we did go to synagogue on Saturday and holidays
    and whatever it is.
    Oh, so you did--
    I had my--
    You did observe holidays?
    Yes, we did.
    And I had my bar mitzvah when I was 13.
    Tell me about your bar mitzvah.
    Well, the war was already on.
    But my relatives who were in Romania,
    we were talking by telephone at that time.
    And we had quite a few people in the synagogue for my bar
    mitzvah, and then we had at home a reception.
    And being the only child, and a boy of course,
    they made a big deal my parents about my bar mitzvah.
    I had to deliver speeches that day and whatever.
    Did you have non-Jewish friends when you were growing up?
    Yes, yes.
    We did.
    And you played at their house?
    Correct.
    Correct.
    Yeah, did you experience any antisemitism
    before the war started-- before '43?
    Well--
    Do you remember any antisemitism?
    Let me tell you this, under the Hungarians,
    when they took things over, being Jewish they wanted
    the Jewish boys-- and I was over 13--
    to show up once a week to do free work.
    And I went to a--
    I had to be--
    I went to a cemetery with a group of people
    just to clean up here and clean up there.
    This is in '43 you're talking about?
    That is in '43, correct.
    Yeah, OK.
    So at that time the laws for antisemitic under the Romanians
    it wasn't, because the war didn't start until '39, '40.
    Right.
    But up to '43, what kind of our childhood--
    After '43--
    --was it for you?
    Did you have any unpleasant--
    I would say very normal.
    Very normal.
    I was not discriminated.
    OK.
    Did you--
    We were under the Romanians at that time, of course.
    Did you feel very Jewish as a Jewish child?
    Oh, yes, very much so.
    I would say 80% of my friends were Jewish.
    Oh, OK.
    OK, were you interested in sports?
    I used to-- the only sport that I was interested in
    and I was good at is running.
    And yeah, because even when I got to Canada at high school
    I was winning awards, winning in running.
    OK.
    So running apparently was--
    Good.
    And what about hobbies?
    Did you have any hobbies?
    I can't think of any.
    I play the violin.
    As far as-- yeah.
    I was pretty good at it.
    And--
    So life went on as a relatively normal childhood up to '43?
    Yes, very much so.
    OK, and the first change--
    what was the first change that you remember?
    The first change really came in after the Hungarians.
    And also-- well, now we're talking about the war was on.
    Do you know a name Jabotinsky?
    Yes.
    My dad was a great mover and shaker of the Zionist movement.
    In fact, he arranged for Jabotinsky
    to come to our town, Oradea Mare,
    to deliver a speech, which was unheard of.
    Oh my, when was that?
    That was-- I can't remember.
    But it was in the '40s.
    The war was on.
    And not only that, because of that I
    remember when he came I was one of the Betar, Betar is Hebrew.
    Yes.
    And I was a young kid, but I had a uniform on collecting money,
    and I would say everybody was saying
    that 60% of the people attending were not Jewish.
    Oh, my.
    And so it was new in that area, the Zionist movement and so on.
    And I remember that Jabotinsky delivered a speech,
    and so on and so forth, I didn't pay attention.
    But he was telling whoever there what the Holocaust that's
    coming, and what's going on already
    in Poland and other countries.
    And just a matter of time it's coming our way,
    and so on and so forth.
    That's what they were talking about.
    So that was 1943, '44--
    '43 definitely.
    Maybe even '42, I can't remember that, but '42, '43.
    So the Zionist movement was catching more and more,
    but getting to Palestine was not easy.
    But you had countries in the Balkans,
    like Yugoslavia and so on, that it
    was very difficult apparently to go through,
    regardless how much money you had, and so on.
    But we knew that problems are coming.
    How did you know?
    You had a radio?
    Well, because--
    Newspapers?
    Because we had people coming from that area,
    from Poland and so on.
    They were officially-- they had IDs--
    non-Jewish IDs, and they came through to tell us that what
    happened--
    You mean, they were Jewish but they had non-Jewish IDs?
    Is that what you're saying?
    Correct, correct.
    OK.
    And that was a way for them to travel.
    Mostly younger people in their 20s and 30s.
    They were hopefully going towards Palestine.
    It's a long way and there were many obstacles to get there.
    Did your life change in any way in 1939
    when the war started in Poland?
    No, it changed in about '43--
    '42, '43.
    OK.
    All right, well let's move on then.
    Let's get to '43, and you have said some thing about that.
    So what are your memories of '43?
    Your first memories?
    My memories of '43 is that the war was going on.
    We were hoping that the Russians-- that
    was Stalingrad times-- had a break through, and therefore,
    any concentration camps that other countries nearby had
    that it would not come our way.
    So your parents--
    The Hungarians were anti-Jewish, but not as active in the war
    until late '43 and of course '44,
    because the Russians were very close to Hungary, namely
    the Carpathian mountains.
    They had to cross that to get into Hungary.
    And so we were just hoping that because of the war
    that would miss concentration camps.
    We knew what was going on in Europe.
    You did know?
    Yeah.
    Oh yes.
    And how did-- is this--
    Well, you never know the whole thing, the whole truth.
    But you know that being Jewish is not safe.
    And--
    How did your family handle this with you?
    You were only 13, you were just a young teenager.
    Is this something your folks talked about with you?
    Or your friends or?
    Well, they talked about it in the sense
    that I overheard, because that's what
    they talked about with the other adults constantly.
    And even they thought about that they may
    would like to take this chance to go through the Balkan
    countries to reach Palestine.
    It was extremely precarious, and many people who tried it--
    if you were single you could get around and make it.
    But for a family and the young child and so on, that's it.
    And it would have been dangerous.
    Did you feel-- [COUGHS] excuse me-- under threat?
    Was it a frightening time for you as a teenager?
    It was only a frightening time by the time the ghettos were,
    because we have then realized that we may not
    be able to avoid all this that we're hoping and praying
    that it wouldn't come our way.
    Yeah, OK.
    So then the next change that you remember?
    Well, the next change was the ghetto,
    and the ghetto was in the same city.
    In fact, they were bringing in Jewish people
    from smaller centers into our city because a portion of it
    was a ghetto.
    A portion of it, and we had barbed wire--
    is in Soroca?
    You're talking about the ghetto in Soroca, right?
    No, no, this is a ghetto in Oradea Mare.
    Oh, OK.
    Yeah, Soroca is where my--
    Oh, that was where you were born, I'm sorry.
    Born, and at the other end of Romania.
    Yeah, I'm sorry, right, right.
    But at that time--
    by that time the Russians or Ukrainians took part of Soroca,
    so Romania didn't have it.
    And also, Hungary took the other side of the province--
    a portion of the province of Transylvania.
    So let's talk now about the ghetto.
    What did that mean to you, and--
    Well the ghetto meant that we were hoarded in this area.
    So you had to move out--
    had you been living as a child in a house or an apartment?
    In our house.
    You were in a house, OK.
    So you had to leave your house--
    Yes.
    --to go into the ghetto?
    Actually, our house was you walked in
    and there were three houses inside,
    and they had three owners.
    And side by side inside a yard were three houses.
    But you had to get into the yard.
    They were all Jewish, all the three people-- the three
    families.
    And we had to leave that.
    We had to go into the ghetto, which was maybe eight, nine
    blocks away and stay there.
    And they had a fence around the ghetto, barbed wires and police
    that you couldn't get out.
    But you had to look after your own existence.
    They didn't feed you there.
    What did you take with you from home as a teenage boy?
    Did you take anything special with you?
    Not to my knowledge.
    We just took so many suitcases and whatever.
    And many things we had precious we
    hid by digging up a hole in our yard to leave there.
    And that's how we were doing.
    And I know that after the war I had an aunt in Iasi--
    Iasi is a city in Romania--
    who survived everything because she didn't go to camp at all.
    And she was a pharmacist there, and her husband
    was a professor at the university.
    But they had no children, so I contacted her.
    And I contacted her by the time I got to France.
    And she was alive and so on, didn't go to any camps at all.
    And she, many weeks later, went where we used to live.
    And I told her all the places that I hid.
    Oh, my.
    And it was still there.
    Oh, my.
    And so yeah.
    Yeah, so now you're in the ghetto.
    What kind of living conditions was it?
    The living condition is that you had
    to share it five, six people in a room, whatever it is.
    That's basically-- they are very tight.
    And the--
    And how did you get food?
    Well, if you had the money, and everybody had something,
    you could go and buy food.
    Inside the ghetto?
    Inside the ghetto make food.
    But we did not stay in the ghetto that long.
    And we knew that because they were planning
    to get the trains going through the ghetto
    to pick up the people.
    And so we knew it was just a matter of time.
    In fact, we were the last or almost the last people
    leaving the ghetto by train.
    So--
    What language did you speak with your parents?
    Mostly Yiddish, but I could speak Hungarian and Romanian.
    And what about to your friends and in school?
    I would say there mostly Hungarian,
    because that was Hungary.
    And so in school, when they were teaching Hungarian,
    most of the kids already spoke Hungarian at home.
    Not us, we didn't speak Hungarian at home.
    But we spoke Yiddish I would say.
    Yeah, my dad was fluent in French, but not my mother.
    So what did you do during the day in the ghetto?
    I would say as a young person nothing.
    OK, were there many other children that you saw your age?
    In the ghetto?
    Yes.
    Yes, of course.
    Yes.
    And did you talk about with your friends what was happening?
    Was this something that you spoke about as a young boy?
    If I have I cannot remember.
    OK, so how long were you in the ghetto?
    Not that much, not that long.
    Approximately do you know?
    Approximately?
    Approximately I thought maybe two months,
    two-and-a-half months.
    OK.
    Now, you see, that came fast.
    It came fast because the province of Transylvania
    is closer to the mountains, and the Russians
    were on the other side the mountains.
    And so we were just hoping and praying
    that they cross the mountains and attack,
    but that did not happen when we were still there.
    Did your family have a radio in the ghetto?
    Were you aware of what was happening?
    Yes, there was a radio.
    We were able to listen listened to it,
    but they were listening to the radio.
    Yeah, and what about newspapers or just to find out
    what was happening in the rest--
    I can't remember there were newspapers,
    because I would say no.
    Yeah, and any classes, any lectures in the ghetto?
    Not in the ghetto.
    OK, so now it's '44.
    And the next--
    It is now '44--
    spring of '44, yes.
    And what happened next?
    Well, we were told that the trains are
    going to come and take us away, and they
    did come whenever they told us.
    And within five to six days they emptied the ghetto.
    And we the last or second last in the train to leave.
    When we left, there was nobody else left in the ghetto.
    Do you know why you were among the last?
    I don't know, because they distributed certain areas.
    I see.
    You go first, you go second, you go third, forth,
    whatever it is.
    Yeah.
    And they had the trains coming in into the ghetto
    to put you into the train.
    Did you know where you were going?
    Did you know where you were going?
    No.
    No.
    We were--
    How did you know--
    how did your family know that you were supposed to leave?
    Oh, they were telling us.
    They were telling us which district.
    So the gendarmes came in and they went from house to house
    and we just joined and to get on the train.
    And they were saying, the gendarmes were actually
    saying-- and I heard that with my own, ears--
    you don't need this.
    They were asking for money, they were asking especially jewelry.
    Wherever you are going, without telling us
    where, you won't need it.
    Yeah.
    Were there any antisemitic incidents
    with the guards in the ghetto?
    No, there were not that many guards inside the ghetto.
    So you can walk in the ghetto from one street to another
    and you wouldn't run into anybody.
    OK, so now you're told to leave.
    We're told to leave.
    We get on the trains.
    Well, the trains were cattle cars.
    And they had approximately less than 100,
    90, 91, 92, whatever it is in one of those cars.
    And at that time they also had two gendarmes in the car--
    inside to travel.
    And they were the worst, because they really wanted money,
    jewelry, and whatever.
    And they kept telling us, and they were right,
    that wherever you're going you wouldn't need it,
    and so on and so forth.
    So some were gave them something,
    some did not want to.
    We didn't believe a lot of things,
    and they said it's just a bunch of [INAUDIBLE]..
    What nationality were the guards?
    Hungarian.
    Hungarian, yeah.
    Yeah.
    So you're on-- and what was that trip like getting
    into the cattle car you said?
    Can you describe some of the conditions, if you remember?
    Well, the idea is that the cattle cars also
    had containers used for--
    For sanitation you mean?
    Sanitation purposes.
    It was, mind you, this was spring,
    so it was [INAUDIBLE] of course.
    And we did stop at the border when we left Hungary.
    And therefore-- why?
    Because the Hungarian troops or whatever guarding us left us
    at the border, and I cannot remember who replaced them.
    I don't think that it was German troops.
    Somebody else replaced them at the border.
    Did you have any food?
    Did they give you any food, or did your mother bring food?
    We had to bring our own food.
    They weren't feeding you during that.
    I don't know about water, I can't remember.
    But I think that they brought in or allowed containers of water
    for everybody, whatever it is, but not food.
    And everybody had to bring their own food.
    But it was packed, because people were bringing
    whatever they could bring.
    Could you lie down to sleep?
    It's mostly sitting down.
    Sitting, yeah.
    And how did your parents handle this with you?
    Well--
    Were they comforting, or were they frightened?
    No, no they-- well, my father was in command, so to speak.
    And so I was under his umbrella.
    Because we knew that we would be separated
    and they were hoping that I can go with him, wherever it is.
    But we knew that they separated us when we get to Germany.
    We did not know anything about Auschwitz or Birkenau.
    OK, so you did not know where you were going at that point?
    No.
    No, no.
    In fact, even when we arrived in Birkenau
    there were no signs saying Birkenau or Auschwitz.
    And in the car--
    we'll get to that in a minute.
    On the train, on those few days of the trip
    I think did you say four days or something?
    What was the atmosphere in the car like?
    Were people quiet or were they very upset?
    Well, everybody was upset--
    Do you have any memories of that?
    --and everybody was quiet.
    Were people comforting each other?
    Do you remember?
    The answer is probably no.
    Because I've been on similar trains while in camps and so
    on where people there during the night and so on,
    they became mental patients.
    They were ranting and raving and so on and so forth.
    But not on this trip to Auschwitz.
    So now you arrive at Auschwitz, and what was that like?
    Can you describe when you're train came to a stop?
    Well, early in the morning-- we arrived early in the morning.
    And actually, we must have arrived during the night,
    because early in the morning like 6:00
    the train was someplace else, and that's
    when they start going into the camp, which is a slow motion
    way to wherever they had to stop.
    And then we looked out the cattle car we saw troops there.
    And I can't see remember to this day
    whether they were German troops or Polish troops,
    or whatever it is.
    But we definitely saw them standing side
    by side with bayonets and holding onto bayonets
    on both sides of the train.
    Because you could open the car on each side.
    And then there were actually even prisoners
    who were working to help us to get out of those cars--
    prisoners who were in Auschwitz helping us getting out
    of the cars.
    And telling us, of course, no you don't need that,
    just leave it in the car.
    Because the orders were leave everything, all baggage,
    in the car.
    And so they insisted and people didn't listen.
    They still wanted to take this bag or that bag,
    whatever it is.
    And they said no, no, no.
    So and that was people who were actually working in the camps.
    So they were prisoners who said no, no, don't.
    They didn't say anything except that.
    That was their job, and to line up and so on.
    And looking back, the tragedy was that everybody was shocked.
    Whatever the guys seen they were in shock.
    And families being separated right
    in front of their eyes, the shock and so on.
    And I can understand now, but not at that time.
    Of course.
    Because the only thing my mother wanted that stick to your dad,
    go where your dad is, and so on and so forth.
    Well, that's a wish that didn't happen.
    Because she could see, I am guessing, that even when
    we went to the area where for men and boys
    that they were separating us right there.
    You could see it.
    They were only half a block away or less.
    So my mother definitely could see that they took me away
    from my dad.
    But I went with my dad to where I was
    told to go and so on, so forth.
    And I would say now, thinking back, looking back
    that most people were in shock.
    Because whatever they expected was worse.
    And so but the mothers were clinging to the kids.
    The kids were crying, and so on and so forth, so it was chaos.
    Yeah.
    Yeah, so then did your parents say anything to you especially?
    Yes, I think I wrote that down, because I can't remember
    the word that they said.
    I know they were talking to me.
    I know that my mother was crying.
    But my mind was blank, because I honestly--
    and I thought about it many, many times what my mother said.
    And I cannot remember a word.
    And I know that she was talking to me.
    So you were then taken to a group of young people?
    Yeah, but first of all, they separated
    my mother and my father and I. My father
    and I went to the right, but not very far,
    because I would say 20 or 30 feet we were separated.
    We were separated, and I can't remember
    whether we were separated after somebody asked my age
    or whatever it is.
    But they said no, you go here and you go over there.
    Yeah, and you're 14 years old?
    You're 14 years old?
    Yeah, that's right.
    So you went to this group of young people?
    Yes.
    Was it young boys?
    Young--
    Yeah, I would say between 13 and maybe up to 17, 18 thereabouts.
    And they said--
    But it was boys only?
    It wasn't--
    That's right.
    I ended up with the boys only.
    But first I ended up with my dad and myself.
    Yes, yes.
    And then where did they take your group?
    Where did you--
    Well, they took us into a camp.
    You see, these camps are camps within a camp within a camp.
    So we marched at, I can't remember, maybe five,
    10 blocks or more into this other camp.
    They opened the gate and we could
    see that there were young people there.
    And there was somebody in the camp, a Jewish person who
    looked out of the camp, and he took over the group
    and found spots to--
    here, you stay here, you stay there, and whatever it is.
    So and then the rest, of course, were talking
    to the young people there.
    And--
    So how did you sleep?
    What was the conditions like in this camp?
    Well, they had these wooden bunks.
    Bunks, yeah.
    Two or three up.
    And so they all looked alike, and they said,
    well, this is where you--
    this is yours.
    And that's sort of non-eventful.
    Yes, but you didn't have a cover,
    you didn't have a pillow.
    Did you have to share your bunk with anybody
    or did you have your own bunk?
    Everybody had-- everybody was given a bunk.
    Yeah, well you shared it because somebody
    was next to you, so to speak.
    Yeah.
    OK, and what about food?
    Food in concentration camp-- and that applied all concentration
    camp--
    we were fed approximately early evening.
    And that applies everywhere in the concentration camps
    that I've been.
    It was soup.
    You got soup, and you got a slice of bread.
    Were you still wearing your clothes that you came with?
    That's a good question, because the answer is no.
    So we must have gone to take a shower or whatever.
    Because when I got to the camp, inside the camp--
    the group-- we wore what was given to us except for shoes.
    You could keep your shoes and the rest
    you left before you went to a shower.
    And you didn't see the clothes again.
    Your shoes were on and you were allowed to keep your shoes.
    Were you wearing a uniform, a striped uniform?
    A striped uniform, yes.
    That's right.
    Oh, you were?
    Yes, yes.
    OK.
    Were you tall or short physically?
    What was your physical condition?
    That's a good question.
    I can't remember the height.
    I wasn't very short, but I was very tall.
    Yeah, you were average?
    You mean average.
    Average, whatever that means.
    OK, and the other boys, did you talk with them?
    Yeah, well we talked with the boys.
    But there again-- actually, we were
    trying to find out from the other boys
    how long have you been here and whatever it is.
    So whatever information we got was non-eventful
    or they didn't want to tell us, or they did not know.
    So what did you do during the day?
    Nothing.
    You just--
    Absolutely nothing.
    I know that some boys were cleaning this and that, house
    cleaning and whatever it is.
    But I didn't get to that stage I suppose
    where they said this is what I want you to do and so on.
    Were there roll calls?
    Did they--
    Yes, oh, yes.
    Oh, yes.
    What was that like for a 14-year-old?
    Well, it's an eye opener that the roll call
    was extremely important.
    They talked to you over and over again.
    Originally twice a day and it was important.
    And if you were lectured about something or something
    that's when they announced it while you
    were standing in roll calls.
    We're going to do this and that, or whatever, whatever.
    So roll calls that's when somebody, a uniformed German,
    came into your camp, and he accompanied whoever
    to look you over, just walk by you,
    look you over, whatever it is.
    And also telling whoever looked after the prisoner
    to tell the people about this and that,
    and that announcement.
    But roll call was very important to them.
    And definitely you have to be up there and so on and so forth,
    and they counted you--
    everybody twice a day.
    Did you know-- you knew you were in Auschwitz, right?
    Oh, yeah.
    I--
    What did Auschwitz mean to you?
    OK, to be honest with you, I didn't know the word Auschwitz.
    What it meant, yeah.
    Yeah, I knew that I was in a concentration camp.
    Concentration camp called Auschwitz,
    but you didn't understand what it meant.
    Yeah.
    I knew nothing about Auschwitz before I got there.
    Before you got there, OK.
    So you're in this camp, and one day is like the next you said?
    With roll calls--
    That's right.
    And you ate once a day.
    Did they give you any bread at least?
    Yeah, when they gave you the soup you line up for bread.
    But I remember other camps--
    I can't remember where--
    where because of my condition and so on,
    that's almost at the end of the war and so on,
    where by the time I was standing next to get the soup
    and there was no more soup.
    And so they gave me nothing.
    And so it was very important for survival that you line up you
    half an hour or an hour before.
    But I know that nobody gave a damn the fact
    that the soup ran out.
    Yeah.
    So you just spent the days with the other boys.
    And then what was the next event--
    I spent the-- yes--
    And then what happened?
    And that's why I wrote that, because I did nothing unusual
    being a boy like that.
    I was closer to the main entrance, just curiosity
    wanting to know what's going on.
    But I wasn't the only one.
    And there was always, especially when you saw people coming in,
    especially you wanted to make sure
    that the soup is coming for the day.
    And so on, so you wanted to know whether we're going to get it.
    And so I sort of congregated.
    But we must have been--
    I'm guessing now 20, 25 people just loitering in there,
    and just watching, really.
    And so that's why my story, one of my escapades as what
    has happened.
    And I always thought about it, and I thought maybe the hand
    of god or something.
    That somebody will ask me to grab a hold of the empty can.
    And the person who asked me, never seen him in my life
    before or after, and walk out this camp.
    You are still in camp when you walk out from this camp.
    It's a camp within a camp.
    Did your barracks have a number at all?
    Or a label?
    If there were, I do not know.
    If there were, I'm sure there must have been.
    But I can't remember.
    And did you ever have a number on your arm,
    or they didn't do that?
    No, by the time we were--
    before if you were taken to Auschwitz, not Birkenau,
    they were doing these things.
    So many coming in, prisoners per day,
    that they discontinued that and definitely not
    so much in Birkenau.
    If anything, if you arrived and you
    were in the Auschwitz part, which is the older part time,
    they used to.
    And that's how they kept track of you.
    But when they start bringing prisoners into Birkenau
    they discontinued that.
    They couldn't keep up.
    So you said--
    I don't have a number.
    You said that some man came over?
    Can you tell me about what happened?
    Some man asked you to take hold of the soup cans?
    Yeah, I was there and he says, boy,
    grab a hold of the container.
    Well, it's an empty container.
    And so I did, and follow me.
    And by the time I realized it took two or three minutes.
    I realized I was out of that barrack.
    At first I thought he wants me to help them to take it out,
    and then he'll tell me to go back.
    But nobody told me to go back, we kept on going.
    And the funny part is that I saw the soldiers right at the door,
    and they just followed the 10 people.
    And so it just dawned on me once I was in the other camp,
    in the senior camp, when somebody told me when I started
    to put two and two together.
    That's when I became very panicky.
    I said, they can shoot me or this and that and so on.
    And I was told not to say anything,
    and of course I said nothing.
    So here you have a 14-year-old one who is--
    I never face these things.
    And I was wondering here and there
    why these people have done that, I haven't got a clue.
    Because whoever talked to me, no relation of mine, and in fact,
    they said very little.
    Whatever they said it was just one sentence things.
    And definitely they didn't want me to recognize their face.
    In other words, because if I get into trouble
    I will identify them, and that's the last thing
    they wanted to do for their own safety.
    So who--
    And this is an adult camp in Birkenau, right?
    Correct.
    So therefore, I would be sticking out
    as the very young person.
    Not only that, in my voice.
    Because when once [INAUDIBLE] was asking somebody--
    shut up.
    Because people would hear a young boy.
    You've seen them and turn around, and so on and so forth.
    But at that time I just I was totally
    in panic, shock, and whatever.
    And but many, many months while I was sitting in the camp I
    was trying to put these things together part of my life
    as to why this happened and that happened.
    And that's why I said in my mind, it just--
    and especially I remember, and this was my first eye opener,
    when it started to rain terribly.
    So everybody-- not everybody, maybe 90%,
    were running out putting their coats above their head.
    And these adults--
    I knew, but not knew.
    I saw them before, two or three on each side of me,
    running with me, doing exactly the same thing.
    And I remember still this is a German soldier who
    was carrying a machine gun or whatever it is standing next
    to the truck, and everybody was running into the truck.
    We had to go up three or four steps.
    And I was told also, go right to the very back in the truck.
    It's sort of a truck had a canvas on it.
    So they--
    How did they know what language to speak to you,
    the other prisoners?
    Well, this was Yiddish.
    Oh, it was all Yiddish.
    OK.
    Yeah.
    And because some people, not withstanding
    that Yiddish and German is very similar,
    but some people didn't speak German at all.
    Just Yiddish, We understood more or less the German language.
    So you said it was raining and you ran?
    Oh it was-- well, it was a rainy week or whatever it is.
    So it was not unusual, but they were telling me
    ahead of time in case it rains, we
    will run beside you on each side.
    These are adults, and have our coats above our heads.
    Up high, yeah.
    And you run in between us.
    You run in between us, so therefore they knew that,
    and they expected--
    I don't know what they expected--
    and hoped that it would rain.
    But it didn't only rain, it was just coming down in buckets.
    So everybody-- everybody meaning the other ones
    done the same thing who had nothing to do with me.
    So running to the trucks, to get into the trucks with your arms
    up over your head, everybody was doing that.
    So in other words, nobody paid attention.
    So you got into the trucks?
    And were you--
    Yes, we get into the truck with the rest.
    And of course, when they had the--
    I don't know how many per truck, we left the camp.
    I'm sorry, you say you left the camp?
    Yeah, we left.
    Well, the truck left the camp.
    Oh, so how long were you there?
    Do you know, in Auschwitz?
    All in all?
    Yeah, total.
    I would say from seven to nine--
    11 days or whatever.
    11 days you said?
    Maybe, maximum.
    I don't even think--
    if you put all those things that I wrote together,
    maybe 10, maybe 10 and a half, whatever.
    And this is summer of '44?
    Correct.
    OK, so now you're in the truck.
    And what's the next--
    Now we're in the truck and we're going to--
    I did not know where, but Breslau,
    and I haven't got a clue where Breslau is anyway.
    And we know that it is in Poland, and it's north--
    north of wherever Auschwitz is.
    I don't-- what about your parents?
    Did you--
    No, I never seen them again after we arrived.
    OK, and did you try--
    I mean, you didn't know, of course.
    Did you try to get in touch with them?
    Was there any way that you thought you could?
    I know you couldn't--
    I know you couldn't.
    But did you try?
    Well, I didn't have a clue.
    So obviously, they did not go through the gas chambers,
    because my father--
    and that's what I put in my thing.
    I heard that he was in Flossenburg, which I was too.
    But he was--
    Yeah.
    Yeah, and then my mother I heard later on--
    later run after I was--
    So I just wanted to make sure, you had no contact with them
    in Auschwitz--
    No I had no contact.
    -- when you were there and they were there in different parts--
    in different parts?
    That's right.
    That's correct.
    OK.
    That's correct.
    OK, so now you're on the truck.
    You said you're going to near Breslau?
    Yeah, we're going towards Breslau.
    And when we got there--
    we didn't make the city.
    I don't know, it may have been 30, 40, 50
    kilometers from Breslau.
    But you could see the city in the distance.
    We were in a castle that was built prior to World War One,
    or during or whatever it is-- a huge castle.
    And they were fortifying it.
    They were fortifying it before we got there,
    and to do that they cut this wall out and that wall out,
    and built other walls, and so on.
    And they had lots of prisoners.
    Not all Jewish, not all from concentration camps.
    And what I remember is women--
    Ukrainian women, and apparently they
    had a camp not too far from there.
    And they were working in the same place.
    So they had a hodgepodge of nationalities building this--
    well, the castle was built, just enforcing it.
    And there were lots of Air Force guys, German Air Force guys.
    Because obviously, it was something
    the Air Force was involved--
    German Air Force.
    But they were building for this fortress
    that they were hoping to use, this castle and whatever.
    But they had been working on it at least a year,
    year and a half before we got there.
    You see, and that's where we were sent to.
    But of course, the place was closer
    to wherever the front Russian German front was
    than Auschwitz was.
    But it was north of there.
    I never was in the city of Breslau,
    but we could see the city.
    So anyhow, and again, we did not stay that long there.
    Did you have to work there at all?
    Yes, oh yes.
    What did you do?
    What I did is they had-- hard to explain.
    They had wooden little platforms that on each side
    they had handles on.
    So you put stones or garbage on it, or whatever,
    and you carried it--
    two people-- and you carried it uphill, downhill,
    wherever you had to dispose of it.
    So there is a name for it.
    So that's what I was doing all day, taking things from here,
    taking it half a mile away or more, up or down
    the steps inside to the people who were actually putting it
    together.
    Were there any air raids at all?
    Pardon?
    Were there any air raids?
    Was there any bombings?
    Lots of air raids, but not air raids
    that you could actually tell.
    Especially in the evening you could see in the distance
    where they were bombing, but not us.
    Good, yeah.
    Yeah.
    And so we had a small camp, not a concentration camp,
    small camp not too far away, like maybe
    four kilometers, 10 kilometers of barbed wire.
    And it was a work camp they called it.
    And early morning, we went there, and 5:00, 6:00
    in the evening we went home.
    And every day, and so on so forth.
    Enough food, did they give you enough food?
    Yes, the conditions were very good actually,
    compared to the concentration camp.
    We got two meals a day.
    And you're still wearing your striped uniform?
    Oh, yes, oh, yes.
    And so--
    Was there any badge or any marking on your uniform?
    No.
    No the-- but, like I said, it wasn't all Jewish.
    We have stripes, the other ones were also in camp,
    but I don't know why.
    And Ukrainians, and so on and so forth,
    and I remember women doing the same thing that us young people
    were doing.
    And so the conditions--
    the security you knew that nobody would harm you
    if you do your job.
    And I do remember things, lots of things,
    because some people just tried to get lost.
    And they were hung later on.
    And we had the roll call, and we had to watch the hanging,
    and so on and so forth, because they
    wanted to make sure that nobody leaves the area
    or just walks away.
    The opportunities were there to just walk away.
    How does a 14-year-old handle something like that?
    Well, not-- it's a shock, because they catch somebody,
    and you get a lecture and think it's all over.
    Then about 10 days later some SS officers arrived,
    and they hang somebody for the same person.
    Because what he was accused of he
    has done two weeks ago or three weeks ago, or whatever it is.
    And you get a speech to go with it.
    And they made you watch it, you mean?
    Watch the hanging?
    Yes, that's right.
    Is that don't they are doing this,
    and don't they are doing that.
    And the funny part is that I remember the incident, one
    of the many, that they have hung two people,
    and one was not Jewish at all.
    But he was in the camp because he married a Jewish lady.
    And therefore-- and they--
    But my question was how does a 14-year-old
    handle watching a hanging?
    Not very well.
    Not very well.
    It's a shock.
    Everything is a shock.
    And--
    And do you talk, again, did you talk it over
    with the other boys your age?
    I cannot remember.
    Yeah, OK.
    The fact is that--
    I'll answer your question.
    One of the things in my life that affected my life
    is that I don't trust people.
    So even when I joined large law firms I decided not to.
    It's in me that don't trust people,
    and I cannot get rid of it.
    You have that, and it's perhaps going back all those years.
    Of course.
    That if you want to live long you don't trust people.
    Just walk your own way.
    It's built in, and I cannot get rid of that.
    So I don't make a good partnership,
    whether it's business or education or whatever it is.
    Because I have this genuine mistrust,
    and I think it comes from those days and whatever it is.
    I'm sure.
    Because you had to fight your own--
    you don't depend on somebody--
    risk your life on what somebody says they will do for you
    or whatever it is.
    Be independent, make your own decision
    without having to rely on somebody else,
    and it's built in.
    So you're now working in this work camp.
    And how long were you there for?
    Not that long, because they were advancing--
    we already been told by the others there that they were
    told to prepare that they will have to be evacuated
    depending--
    because the fortress would not be ready.
    It would not be ready--
    I don't know how many months they expected whatever it is.
    Even though they had lots of Air Force soldiers there,
    because well, that was their department obviously,
    and so on and so forth.
    And we had nothing to do with the soldiers,
    but they were there because this is part of their project.
    So the project was not completed,
    I would say maybe 50% or 60% completed, whatever it was.
    And not only that, I mean, it didn't take too much
    to figure out that the Russians can--
    if it's the Russians, they can go around it.
    They don't have to attack that specific thing.
    But anyway--
    So you left that work camp after how many days did you say?
    I would say almost two months, but short of two months.
    Two months, oh my, OK.
    And then where did you go?
    And when they told us that we have to retreat this time
    we had to walk.
    We had to walk.
    We don't know why.
    Well, I can imagine that the railway
    cars were too busy with the troops retreating,
    so it was walking.
    So we walked at least three days on the highway.
    And the highway was packed--
    not quite highway-- packed with civilians
    carrying whatever baggage they had and whatever it is.
    So they were retreating.
    Don't know why, but they were retreating as well.
    Nothing to do with the army.
    And one highway retreating we all went the same direction.
    And I cannot remember whether it was south or east or west
    or whatever it is.
    And but the soldiers were around us, bayonets
    and so on, each side and just marched
    for three days or three and 1/2 or whatever it is.
    And at night we stopped, and then we left the highway.
    But we were surrounded by soldiers,
    so we actually slept wherever we were right on the ground.
    Did you find the soldiers very frightening with their uniforms
    and their bayonets?
    To be honest to you, I--
    Or did you just get used to them?
    That's a very good question.
    I stayed away from them.
    I was going to say miles away--
    I stayed away, not making any conversation at all.
    Because especially at this time, when you're not
    dealing with kids anymore because you're
    dealing with people of all ages, I felt again,
    I don't trust people.
    Don't get involved, don't talk to them.
    Yeah, so I had zero conversation with soldiers,
    because you did not know whether they were genuinely German
    or maybe Polish, maybe what.
    And--
    So then it was three days of marching I think you said?
    Did you say that?
    Yeah, three days of marching.
    And then where were you after that?
    I was someplace in Czechoslovakia.
    Because they were saying-- because you could see signs,
    which were most often in German.
    And so we knew that we were in Czechoslovakia,
    or maybe somebody was saying.
    And then we walked towards--
    because we ended up at the railway station, namely Prague.
    It said Prague.
    And there they had a cattle car waiting for us.
    Because when we arrived there they
    were saying there is our car, everybody
    can get into those coaches.
    So somebody arranged it, and so on and so forth.
    So we were back in a cattle car and so on,
    and we said we'll continue.
    We were happy because we don't have to walk.
    We'll continue to the [INAUDIBLE]..
    But those cars-- and we got something
    to eat there before we got into the cars.
    But those cars were stuck there for almost two days.
    And I don't know why, but I can assume
    because the orders probably they had to decide where to send us.
    I don't know.
    I did not know.
    And so but we knew that we were in,
    like I said, friendly territory in the sense
    that the people who lived there knew
    who these people are, and they were trying to help I suppose.
    And the only thing that they said they can help
    is leave some food.
    Leave food, yeah.
    Yeah, it's not much to survive, but they did.
    Which means that they are in solidarity with you, whoever
    they are, so on and so forth.
    Did they let you get out of the cars at all--
    No.
    No.
    --to walk around?
    They would not.
    That you couldn't do, and the soldier
    was not allowed to let you out.
    But they said because you are in a train station
    that you can go to the latrine.
    So if you had to go, there were always
    groups of maybe seven, eight, nine people
    going at the same time with two soldiers to the latrine.
    Because you were in a train station
    that you had other people there, and so on and so forth.
    And then you came back and you went
    by your train and some food.
    They didn't allow you, or looked the other way, whatever it is,
    when you bent down and picked it up and brought it into the car,
    and so on and so forth.
    And so some of us went to the latrine
    more often than we had to.
    And then how long--
    you were there what, for two days in the car?
    For almost two days at the train.
    And I'm just guessing that they did not know where to take us.
    And that's why, I'm just guessing.
    And then we left there, and I can't remember how many days we
    traveled, but we went to a concentration camp,
    which is I think Flossenburg.
    And apparently that was a very large concentration camp.
    So we're talking about close to 1945 now?
    Or the winter months?
    Yes.
    Yes, in the fall--
    late fall.
    Of '44?
    Of '44, correct.
    OK, so you go to Flossenburg, and what was that like
    and how long--
    Yeah, it was a large-- a very large concentration camp.
    How long did you stay in Flossenburg?
    Not that long, because they were sending out people wherever
    they can to work camps.
    And that's exactly-- and I remember,
    I wanted to go out to work camps.
    So I stood in line and they put a number on a forehead.
    And I got three quarters, and apparently you
    had to have four, so I got rejected.
    So I stood in line again next day,
    and so on, until I qualified to go to work camp.
    You see, and I remember also that I
    was crying because another fellow, more or less couple
    years older than I, I kept saying he's my brother,
    I want to go with him.
    I remember that.
    Could you please explain why they turned you back first?
    I didn't understand.
    Well, I cannot tell, except that I was--
    they looked me over, obviously.
    And they said well, he's not a big fellow,
    or he wouldn't be able to do whatever.
    Oh he's, I see, yeah, couldn't do the heavy work.
    They were saying-- but I remember
    they put a number on my forehead with a crayon.
    And obviously, the number was 3/4.
    So obviously, when I kept on going--
    kept on going meaning another 50 feet--
    the fellow there, the officer would
    say no, no, no I was rejected.
    I see.
    But I tried again and again, meaning a couple of days
    later on another project.
    And then I was telling--
    well, I was telling the officer, I
    said I want to go with my brother that you just took.
    And there was no brother.
    And so finally he relented.
    And I wanted to get out of the concentration camp.
    What were the conditions in Flossenburg?
    I can't remember, but nothing unusual.
    And it was a very large camp.
    You slept in bunks and barracks?
    In a--
    Yes, same thing.
    That was very common, that was almost identical.
    But I learned, obviously, the best place to be
    is outside of a concentration camp.
    Work camp, no problem.
    You do what you can and so on and so forth.
    And I also knew--
    well, not knew, that I remember when we were still walking,
    and I can't remember from where to where, walking.
    And German people were starting to leave
    food which we couldn't get.
    Which was unusual for places, because normally German people,
    saw people, going by and so on with soldiers and so on,
    they just turned the other way.
    But this way, this was--
    my interpretation was at that time
    that the end must be coming, nearing,
    and people have realized that things are not working out.
    Not working out.
    The population.
    So from Flossenburg then you were there and for how long
    did you say?
    Well, Flossenburg, I can't remember,
    but I didn't stay very long.
    OK, and then where did you go?
    Well, they sent us to a work camp.
    But I don't know the name, because we never got there.
    Because they put us on train, and we got to another place,
    which was I think a semi concentration camp or whatever,
    Freiberg or whatever it is.
    But we only stayed there for a day or two.
    So from Freiberg, maybe from Freiberg they
    sent us to this place that we never made it.
    The last one we left Freiberg, and it was only
    few days from Freiberg again.
    They were taking us to a place or places
    where it was already bombed a lot.
    And so we had to gather this and gather that, whatever it is.
    And I don't know to this day why.
    But anyway, so even when we went there different places,
    we were always interrupted with air raids.
    So we--
    Were you on a train?
    You were on trains, right?
    We were in trains, yeah.
    Was it a cattle car or passenger car?
    Yes, we were 90% of the time in cattle cars.
    The only passenger car we were in is the last few days.
    There was one that it was a real train that we were on.
    And I don't know where we were going, but we were daytime.
    Their planes-- the train was bombed.
    But didn't hit, the bombs were falling.
    And I remember that we speeded up and we got into a tunnel.
    And we stayed in the tunnel.
    And we stayed in the tunnel most of the day.
    And so the answer was, you don't use a train anymore
    because you must be very close to the fighting area.
    So we left for a train, and about an hour later air raids
    again.
    So the orders were everybody down, the train did stop.
    And I remember, this is a real train
    that I went down the floor.
    And the order was everybody down,
    so I had to go onto other fellows, young fellows on top
    of me, but I just didn't mind.
    And I was there almost an hour, and I could hear bombs falling,
    I heard a machine gun and so on.
    But it was through, and I remember there was also
    some water close by.
    So there must have been a river close by to the train.
    And then we heard raus, everybody to get out,
    and so I got some out, the people who were on top of me.
    And one fellow, more or less my age, maybe a year or two older,
    I got him off me.
    And I looked at his face and both eyes were shot out.
    Oh my.
    So I was, again, lucky that I was down, down,
    down on the floor and others were on top of me.
    Yeah, and from there everybody had to get out of the train
    and we were chased up the hill.
    And we were there for four or five hours
    and then marched back into the train,
    because [INAUDIBLE] so on and so forth.
    And so they started to use trains then
    for anybody, no longer cattle cars,
    because I suppose that meant they
    had to organize if a train is--
    so anyway, but we were still on our way to this war camp.
    I don't know what it is, because we never made it.
    So then one morning, and this is back to the real train,
    we see other prisoners are opening the doors and so on.
    And they said that everybody's gone, there's no soldiers here.
    And now this time the train had--
    they had the war prisoners.
    In other words, not the concentration
    camp people, but--
    Prisoners of war?
    Yeah, even Auschwitz had those and some camps.
    And they were saying that they had
    whoever is running the locomotive is gone,
    and that there's no soldiers.
    So I didn't go out, but others did go out to look
    and they all come back.
    They say there's no soldiers.
    And then somebody was saying see the village over there?
    Let's go, and of course these prisoners
    are saying it's terrible to be here alone, because you never
    know what's going to happen.
    Somebody is going to come and start shooting at you
    from whatever.
    So anyway, everybody went out and we
    decided to walk the three or four kilometers,
    because you can see this little village there.
    And about a half a mile before we
    were stopped by German soldiers.
    So said who are you, and they explained to them.
    So there was two soldiers around us,
    and they marched us downtown into a church basement.
    What was the name of the town?
    Do you know?
    Tuttlingen.
    Tuttlingen, OK.
    It wasn't a camp of any kind, and they had nobody else there.
    So when we got there they say well--
    they were obviously expecting allies coming or somebody,
    soldiers, because there were soldiers in tanks all over.
    And so they took us down to a church.
    And remember, just not half of us,
    but not everybody was Jewish there.
    They had Russians and mostly men that were in camp, too.
    So down to the church basement, so we
    were there until three, four hours.
    Then somebody-- well, they had soldiers guarding us up there.
    They ran down and were saying--
    and we knew that bombs are falling, you could hear it.
    They said everybody out because the church is on fire.
    So everybody was running upstairs.
    And you opened the door, and you see tanks all over.
    And but it was very hilly, and you
    can see hills, so hills and lots of trees.
    And so really it was a village, notwithstanding
    that there's a downtown and whatever.
    So we started running, everybody was running out.
    But there were planes above us.
    We saw that, because they were coming
    down and with machine guns.
    So I was running after whoever ran in front of me,
    and so on so forth.
    And bombs were falling, and every time [INAUDIBLE]
    it got us where it was close by everybody just hit the ground.
    And after a while nobody--
    there was one explosion very close, and I hit the ground.
    And then I had to sit up, I couldn't.
    Whoever was in front of me didn't move.
    The other two people close to me on each side didn't move.
    And obviously, so I couldn't tell,
    but I didn't have the time to investigate.
    So I assume that they must have been killed, whatever it is.
    But that's when my leg was hit.
    So must be a sharpnel or something that hit it.
    Because it was bloody, and I just
    wanted to get out of there instead of sitting
    down and finding out what's wrong with me.
    And so it's still going up the hill, crawled up
    and I noticed some bunkers.
    It was not only hilly, but there was trees there, a bunker.
    So I was-- it took me time to get up there.
    And then I was trying to get in one of the bunkers,
    but these are civilians down in the bunkers.
    And they weren't happy at all to allow me in.
    They didn't trust me or whatever,
    and there were children there, German men and women,
    young and old.
    And you spoke German?
    Yes, I spoke German, I could understand German and respond.
    So I asked for to let me in.
    Well, I could understand, they were talking
    and they were not happy to let us
    in because they didn't trust us.
    I mean, they knew what was going on because they could see it.
    But they told me that because the bombs were still falling
    below, the village was below.
    And they said all right, let the boy in, but temporarily.
    Well, that was great as long as they--
    but nobody I didn't ask, and nobody would touch my leg.
    And I couldn't stand on it, but I could crawl.
    And so the last thing I wanted to let them know
    that I have medical problems.
    I was happy that the less they know,
    as long as I can just get into this bunker in the corner at
    sit there.
    So late afternoon somebody did approach me and say no, we
    don't want you here over night.
    They were afraid of everybody there.
    And they said, well, the rest of you are still down there.
    Why don't you go down to the village?
    You could see the village because we were high up.
    And so anyway, I was out, so I was trying to crawl down,
    but I never got down.
    Because the further down I went I could
    see everything was burning.
    Many tanks there with people on the tanks.
    In other words, dead people on the tanks.
    But very, very quiet.
    It was-- you could hear the burning of wood,
    whatever it is, very quiet--
    extremely quiet.
    So I decided, no, no, I better not.
    A, I didn't have the energy, because I
    though if I got back down I have to start
    climbing up, and climbing up is twice as hard as going down.
    And so I was--
    I just stayed put.
    And I slept overnight, stayed the night there.
    And early morning I heard tanks--
    I didn't see tanks, but I heard tanks.
    I heard [INAUDIBLE] and whatever it is.
    But I couldn't see anything, and so I was there for at least
    actually until about 11:00 or noon
    before I actually saw tanks.
    And I could see it's not a German tank.
    So that's why I decided to crawl down.
    And I finally got down there.
    And these were people that were soldiers, they had stopped
    and they made their own meal or whatever
    it is there, and spoke French.
    And then later on I found out they spoke French,
    and some were actually speaking even German.
    I found out that they were the Foreign Legion.
    Oh, OK, the French Foreign Legion?
    Yes.
    And I heard about the Foreign Legion before the war started
    and whatever it is, and so on and so forth.
    But they were not helpful.
    They didn't want to share any food at all.
    They said, well, you find yourself
    some money and so on and so forth, or find our officer,
    or whatever.
    But there was nobody around.
    But they left all of a sudden.
    Obviously, they were only there for two hours, three hours,
    whatever it is.
    And they just got back in their tanks and so on, and about
    an hour or two they were gone.
    But they were telling me that the rest of the army is just--
    it'd be here in no time.
    But nobody did come.
    And nobody did come down the rest of the day and so on.
    But so I was lingering on in that area,
    and I saw some other people from the camp also.
    Some were actually in a bunker, which was all full.
    But next morning I could see many of the allied tanks coming
    in and so on and so forth.
    And that's when I went down.
    And I finally found somebody who looked like an officer.
    And I showed him my leg and so on,
    so he took me for re-bandaging and so on and so forth.
    But he says he cannot take me back to the hospital,
    and so on, there are too many snipers.
    And he says I may have to wait a day or later in the day.
    Well, later in the day turned out to be the following day.
    That he had also wounded people that he
    had to send back to the base.
    So he put me in the Jeep and two or five Jeeps,
    and we expected that when they have snipers,
    but there was no snipers at all, which is fine.
    And then he took me to it--
    I don't know if it's a town or just a military base
    or whatever.
    And there they took me on a stretcher,
    and they took me to the so-called airstrip.
    It wasn't an airport, an airstrip.
    And when I got there, there were many tents there.
    And everybody there in the tent were on stretchers.
    So these are the wounded that they were planning
    to ship back home [INAUDIBLE].
    But I don't know how far back home was,
    because they put me on a plane on a stretcher
    with the other stretchers.
    And the place that we arrived was Strasbourg,
    so that was France already.
    But even at the airport, back in the airport,
    there were soldiers and so on and they said we cannot get you
    into the hospital downtown.
    But whoever was on with me and so on,
    they decided to send into Colmar.
    Colmar is a town in Alsace-Lorraine.
    If you look at the map it's south of that province.
    So that's what they did.
    They put in ambulances, not air--
    ambulances.
    And these ambulances had the four stretchers per ambulance.
    And I remember the sirens were on for two or three
    hours while they were traveling full speed down to Colmar.
    When we arrived there they knew where to go.
    When we arrived there, they took us to a so-called hospital,
    but basically that was a school at one time.
    And obviously, now it's a hospital.
    So they left me--
    meanwhile, nobody fed you, because if you are wounded
    they are not supposed to feed you.
    Because they don't know what's wrong with you
    and so on and so forth.
    So I begged for food, but nobody would give me anything.
    But they got me in, and within about half an hour
    or so on it's a fellow, obviously
    a doctor, who was in charge came to see me.
    Because I was a young boy and I [INAUDIBLE] and I
    was not in the army.
    So he said-- so he was talking to me when
    we found out that he is-- he asked me where I was born,
    you see.
    Because I had problems speaking, because I wasn't--
    I knew a little bit of French, but not very much.
    So finally, when I mentioned Romania,
    he starts speaking to me in Romanian.
    And so I said--
    so he was telling me that he's born--
    that his parents were Romanian, still are, living in France.
    But he was born in France, and of course, and so on.
    Now he's a captain, and so on and so forth.
    And he put me in a ward.
    Mind you, there were at least 20, 30 people in that ward.
    And he really looked after me to the point
    that I was bedridden all the time.
    But I had people coming in to give me injections
    about four or five times a day.
    I don't know what kind of injections.
    And I could hardly sit on my fanny, because we all-- yeah.
    So he took care, not only of my own wound.
    My wound was the leg.
    But he did, and I remember from time to time soldiers
    died in the ward and so on, and more people came in.
    Do you remember his name?
    [INTERPOSING VOICES]
    Do you know his name?
    No.
    He didn't have a Romanian name.
    And so because when he told me, oh almost two,
    three weeks before I left that they
    are going to close the hospital because the school would start
    in September, and they had to close up,
    and that he will have to send me someplace.
    And he didn't tell me where he's going to send me,
    because he didn't know.
    So the war, obviously, is over by now?
    The war is over.
    This is summer of '45 we're talking about?
    That is correct.
    OK, so the war is over.
    Did you know that the war was over when it was over?
    Yes, I-- yes, I did.
    How did you know?
    How did--
    I was just in a--
    I remember-- and I think that it must've been over before I left
    Tuttlingen. Because I remember--
    Celebrating?
    Did they celebrate or?
    No, because I remember there sitting
    when somebody from a house walked out,
    a gentleman-- an old gentleman, and saying I
    have good news for you.
    The war is over, and you're going to go home.
    And that's the first and the last time I saw the fellow,
    and I said nothing.
    So he told me.
    He didn't give me details, He said the war was over
    last night, or whatever.
    So I was in Tuttlingen when the war was over.
    And the war was over May 8th, right?
    May 8th or 9th, so that's when I was still in Tuttlingen just
    hours before I was shipped.
    Yeah, because I remember that's what he said.
    And he took the trouble to get out of his house.
    And I think he crossed the street--
    he did cross the street, because I was sitting there,
    to tell me the news.
    In fact, he says now you're going to go home.
    Of course, I did not.
    But--
    Did you still think your parents were alive at that point?
    Did you--
    Yes.
    You thought they were?
    OK.
    Oh, yeah.
    You would not know until after that
    to understand how many people died
    and whatever took many, many, many months later.
    Yes.
    And that was actually when I was in Switzerland where
    you had the newspapers, and you had radio,
    notwithstanding your [INAUDIBLE]..
    So you don't know what's going on.
    Well, we'll get to that.
    Yeah.
    And I can talk to you for hours about Davos.
    Well, yeah, we'll get to that.
    Let's-- you're back--
    you're still in this--
    I'm still, yeah--
    With the Romanian doctor talking to you in Romanian in Colmar.
    In Colmar, and he was sending me back.
    But he sent me back to to--
    Strasbourg?
    Strasbourg, and Strasbourg kept me in the hospital.
    This time they put me in the hospital.
    And I remember many people, mostly military people,
    coming to see me to photograph me there.
    And even women in the army, so obviously,
    I must have been talked about.
    Because the boy and so on, and they took many, many pictures
    constantly.
    I was only there for two, three days.
    Yeah, and they didn't want to feed
    me, because they didn't know what's wrong with me,
    [INAUDIBLE] whatever it is.
    And then they shipped me to Paris.
    To Paris, OK.
    To the main hospital, yeah.
    So in Paris somebody [INAUDIBLE] the railway
    station to take me to the hospital.
    And that hospital, it's a huge hospital,
    I never seen so many beds side by side.
    And it was all those wounded.
    It was an eye opened.
    But they looked after me, but they
    didn't have even room to take me to an operating
    room or anything.
    They just right there where the bed is, and to test me
    and so on and so forth.
    And I think I mentioned that they discovered I had TB.
    And then when they found that out, I
    was persona non grata, in other words,
    they wanted me out, for good reason.
    Because they had wounded soldiers,
    and so on and so forth.
    So that's when the Red Cross came in.
    Because they did all the arrangements,
    the Red Cross, and to get rid of me via the Red Cross.
    So obviously, because I didn't really belong there.
    It was an Army hospital.
    This was all the wounded.
    But I suppose this was an opportunity for them
    to get rid of me.
    But also the Red Cross was extremely efficient--
    extremely efficient to make all those arrangements.
    So they took you to a children's hospital?
    Yes, because it takes time.
    Obviously, it takes time.
    So they took me to a children's hospital,
    and there they kept me isolated from everybody.
    In fact, when they brought me food
    they didn't want to even see me.
    They just left food on the table.
    Well, they did not know.
    You can understand.
    Sure, sure.
    They did have kids there.
    And I don't know--
    I didn't see how many and what ages,
    because I was very isolated.
    I had nobody to talk to, because nobody wanted to talk to me.
    Many of yeah, and so on, so when you call isolation and that
    was fantastic isolation, and so on so forth.
    And they kept me because they had to arrange,
    because I wasn't the only one going to Switzerland.
    So that takes time and whatever it is.
    But it didn't take that--
    10, 11 days sounds like a long time,
    but it isn't when you have to make international connections
    and find a sanatorium in Davos.
    So the only thing I want to add when it comes to Davos--
    Well, how did you get there?
    How did you get to Davos?
    Did you go by train?
    Oh, by train.
    You got a train OK, to Davos?
    Yeah.
    OK, with the Red Cross and other--
    The Red Cross, it was a train--
    --and other young people?
    Yeah, another four I think.
    I wasn't the only one.
    And those four, not all were in camp.
    I think out of the four at least two or three were in camp.
    The other two I do not know.
    And so the funny part is that the lady who took us there,
    working for the Red Cross, was originally French,
    but raised in Algeria.
    And she also had TB.
    So they found somebody who--
    so she looked after us, but herself too.
    And she also stayed in the same sanatorium.
    So but anyway, that's what it is.
    But I was going to say about Davos, in case you don't know,
    I didn't realize how many sanatoriums there were.
    They must have had at least 60 70 sanatoriums.
    It was very hilly--
    very hilly.
    It was an international place at that time.
    Now, it's a commercial international in Davos.
    But at that time, I suppose some of these hotels or semi-hotels
    or sanatoriums, it was famous before World War Two,
    obviously, and during because of being a sanatorium, which
    is up, up, up in the mountains.
    In the mountains, yeah.
    So they took--
    They used different methods.
    But I was going to say, is when I
    was able to walk around in Davos, some of my friends
    went to the other sanatoriums to talk to people who
    were in the concentration camp.
    I did not do that, but so my information comes from them.
    And they said that the place was packed in Davos after World War
    Two with people from concentration
    camps with tuberculosis.
    In fact, many would not have made it,
    and my roommate there came and told me,
    you talk to them, knowing they're extremely
    ill, [INAUDIBLE] and they have great dreams
    that they're going to get better,
    and they're going to go home, and do this and that.
    When 60, 70% are told that their chances of survival is nil.
    In other words, TB has advanced.
    And many have come from the concentration camps ended up
    in sanatoriums after the war.
    So and they had big dreams.
    I remember one that actually came to visit us,
    and he had big dreams.
    He lost a leg, but he was big dreams
    that he was going to Israel, and he was going to fight
    and all this.
    I mean, dreaming in technicolor, because he
    was very ill with TB.
    It was as simple as that.
    But those are people, young people,
    who came out of the concentration camp had
    very high hopes and dreams.
    And yeah.
    So you were in Davos for?
    I was in Davos for about eight and 1/2 months.
    OK, and then where did you go?
    And then they sent me back.
    And the Red Cross was still involved.
    And then they put me in the OSE.
    OSE stands for--
    The children's, yeah.
    Oeuvre de Secours aux Enfants, it's
    an organization for children.
    The Red Cross initiated it initially, apparently,
    before World War Two.
    So you went back to France?
    You went back to France?
    Pardon?
    You went back to France?
    I went back to France, correct.
    OK, and where did you stay?
    I stayed in Versailles.
    With the OSE.
    OSE is the organization for children.
    Yes, right.
    Yeah.
    And then so you stay there for?
    Until we were approached by the Jewish Congress from Canada
    there.
    The Jewish Congress had a permit from [INAUDIBLE]
    before World War Two started to bring 1,000 kids, orphans,
    and so on.
    Well, during the war they couldn't do anything about it.
    Now, did you at this point know about your parents, or not?
    I'm thinking now.
    I did know about my parents.
    Actually, yes, I knew about the parents
    before I left Switzerland.
    Switzerland, yeah.
    So obviously-- not obviously, I'm 80% sure the Red Cross--
    Found out?
    --had some records.
    Because they gave me those records.
    They were the one who found my uncle in Canada.
    I see.
    When you were in Versailles, what did you do?
    Were you able--
    Yeah, when, OK--
    Did you go to school?
    Excellent question.
    Did you go to school?
    Excellent question.
    I insisted that I want to go back to school.
    School, yeah.
    And they sent me to [PLACE NAME] which is two,
    three blocks from the Sorbonne in Paris.
    It's a school.
    It's not a university.
    And I went there because to learn French and to learn--
    to finish my high school diploma, which I didn't
    finish until I got to Canada.
    So every morning-- I wasn't the only one.
    About six, seven of us took the metro, subway, and we went.
    And that's where it was located.
    It's located on the way to Versailles, actually.
    It's outside of Paris, if you know where Sorbonne is.
    It is only two-and-a-half blocks from the Sorbonne.
    And so every morning the group, we
    went down and went to school.
    Where did you live in Versailles?
    In a home.
    A children's home?
    In a children's home?
    Yes.
    It was something, more than a children's home.
    But it was something built by somebody before the war.
    And I don't know how they got it to use,
    or the government gave it to them.
    It was-- we had approximately there 60, 70 kids.
    So it was a large place.
    And boys and girls.
    And your health was good by then?
    Well, when I was there my lungs were OK.
    I still had the wound.
    That didn't heal exactly.
    It's still not healed all these years.
    I still have wounds that don't heal,
    and they're saying it's circulation problem because
    of that.
    And so I have more problems now than I
    did five or 10 years ago.
    And so when I came to Canada I wanted to go back
    to school, which I did.
    Now, you knew that your uncle was in Canada?
    Yes.
    Oh, OK.
    Well, I knew when I was in Switzerland,
    because they found him.
    I knew that he was in Canada from home.
    And I think I mentioned someplace there
    that my dad, before we got to the concentration camps
    and whatever, made us--
    made me remember his address, and so on and so forth.
    Well, I only remembered the city.
    I forgot the details.
    So when I was in Switzerland I said to Red Cross what I know.
    That you have an uncle in Canada?
    That's right.
    And while I was there, they told me that they found him.
    They gave me the address, and he wrote to me also
    while I was in Switzerland.
    So when I left Switzerland to France,
    I knew that [PERSONAL NAME] is there,
    and he's is trying to take me out to Canada.
    Wonderful.
    Yeah, well he didn't have to do that,
    because the Jewish Congress, meanwhile,
    got a permit to bring in 1,000 kids, and I was a part of that.
    And I was in the first group who made it into Canada.
    Oh, OK, so when did you--
    I end up in the fall of '47, in September sometimes.
    And I was the first of the group.
    I think 22 of us arrived here to Canada,
    and I was the first of that group to arrive.
    And that's how I end up in Edmonton--
    Montreal first, Edmonton second.
    And I went to the Alberta College to get my English.
    And after one year I wrote the exam,
    and I was admitted to university.
    I wrote the exams for high school,
    and that entitled me to go to university.
    So you went from Versailles, and then you took,
    what, a boat from England to Canada?
    Yes.
    I did say that in my report.
    In Versailles, it took me a while
    to get the OK by the French--
    no, I'm sorry, from the Canadian Embassy.
    But then they sent us to London, because that was
    the gathering point of so on.
    So I arrived to London, I only stayed four or five days ago.
    There were only six other kids that came in from camps
    from Germany.
    So we had about 22.
    So 22 of us took the train to [PLACE NAME] to deport.
    And the Aquitania was a boat that took us over the ocean.
    And when we arrived in Halifax they
    were telling us that now you're going to take the train
    to go to Montreal.
    And Montreal is a big city, and that's a gathering point.
    Before the day was over somebody from the Jewish Congress
    there says no, there was a change in plan.
    He said, there are so many people
    waiting for you fellows in Montreal,
    and we decided to fly you to Montreal.
    [INAUDIBLE] on the train.
    So we didn't realize how many people were there.
    So finally, they put us on a plane.
    The same day we arrived in Halifax
    and we arrived there at 2:30 in the morning in Montreal.
    And they took us to a place, it wasn't a synagogue,
    it was someplace else.
    And the amount of people there are unbelievable-- unbelievable
    who waited for us.
    And I think I said in my report that--
    I'm trying to-- that when they saw us
    extreme emotions by everyone.
    I can imagine, yeah.
    And I put something down here, which even today
    I just give me a second.
    Yeah, and I said this, which is true,
    the amount of people waiting and embracing us was fantastic.
    They kept saying, and I will never
    forget that, these are the surviving
    children from the Holocaust.
    And basically, they were there hoping that one of us
    there would give them some information on the relatives
    that we-- that's right, and that was very emotional.
    Yeah.
    So then and then how did you get to your uncle?
    I didn't need his help, because the Jewish Congress said,
    we'll put you on a train.
    It's a long journey, and you'll get to Edmonton.
    So you got out there by yourself.
    And I did that.
    They advised him, and he met me.
    I never met him in my life before.
    So he went up to the train station and met me.
    My uncle, at that time, was a widower,
    because his wife died during the war.
    And so he lived in a small place and whatever,
    and I was with him for a while.
    And I asked the local Jewish community
    that I want to go to school, and whatever it is.
    So they helped me out, and they found me a home.
    A home of a couple that had kids more or less my age, and they
    wanted to help me out.
    But they were paid by I think by the local community.
    So I stayed with them for about four years,
    and I went to university.
    Did you know any--
    [INAUDIBLE]
    Did you know any English before you got to Canada?
    No.
    No, so you learned it when you got there?
    I learned it, and that's why I took one year out,
    because I needed to know the language.
    So that's why I went and put a call, [INAUDIBLE]
    go to college in Edmonton.
    And the many things that I wrote exams I actually
    learned also in France.
    But language something that I was trying
    to pick up, which I've done.
    And I then admitted to the university, got my arts degree.
    But I always wanted to be a doctor, because that's
    what my parents wanted me to do, and I
    many of my family going back, back, back,
    are all professors or doctors.
    So the truth is, that it takes a lot a lot of money,
    and I just didn't have it.
    Did you--
    And not only that, I used to work in the summertime.
    Well, you don't have enough months,
    because the medical school only gets two months off.
    And you cannot earn enough in two months for tuition.
    I was also lucky that [INAUDIBLE]
    that the Germans sent.
    So by that time, and this was in the '50s, they paid me.
    Well, I tell you what I got, I got 6,000 something twice,
    but I don't know what they paid because I
    had a lawyer in Montreal handling it.
    So I don't know how much he got commission.
    I got 6,000 something twice, and that helped me--
    This is reparations you're talking about, right?
    That's right.
    It helped me, which plus the fact that I worked too.
    So I decided to go for a law degree hoping that.
    This is a continuation of the United States Holocaust
    Memorial Museum interview of Gerald Averback, which
    began on October 28, 2016.
    It is being conducted by Gail Schwartz on March 16, 2017.
    And it's taking place by telephone in Saskatoon,
    Saskatchewan, and at the United States Holocaust Memorial
    Museum.
    Before we begin, I just wanted to summarize your experiences.
    And then we'll go on from there.
    So I just wanted to say, you were
    born Isidore Averback on February 19, 1930,
    in Soroca, Bessarabia.
    And you lived in Oradea Mare.
    Am I pronouncing it correctly?
    That is right.
    Which was occupied by Hungary in 1939.
    You were in the ghetto from late 1943 for two and 1/2 months
    and then went to Auschwitz by cattle car,
    arriving June 16, 1944.
    And it was the last time you saw your parents.
    You were 14 years old.
    You were in the children's camp.
    And after four days, an adult male prisoner
    got you into the men's group.
    And you hid for two and 1/2 days.
    And then you went with a group, leaving Birkenau.
    And you went to a work camp in a castle in Breslau, Poland,
    for six weeks.
    Then to Czechoslovakia by railroad cars in Prague.
    And then to Flossenburg camp and Freiberg.
    And then on a cattle car, you were bombed by the Allies.
    And you walked to Tuttlingen. And then
    you were wounded by Allied bombs,
    rescued by a French medical team,
    went by plane to Strasbourg, France,
    and was in the hospital two to three months in Colmar.
    Then you went to Paris, and then Davos, Switzerland,
    to a sanatorium, then to Versailles.
    And in September 1947, you went to London,
    and then sailed to Halifax, and then Montreal.
    And you finished your education, high school, law school,
    worked in the prime minister's office.
    And now you have your own law offices in three provinces.
    So I just wanted to summarize that.
    So I'd like to now talk about some
    of your thoughts and feelings.
    Do you think about your experiences often now?
    I think about some of it, especially when I
    read the newspaper of the different genocides that
    are happening worldwide, which means that in my view,
    I think that, obviously nothing has changed.
    Humanity hasn't learned anything.
    And what I've been thinking quite a bit from time to time
    because you asked me to think about what the museum can do,
    or done in the past, or what they
    ought to do, in my opinion, in the future dealing
    with genocide.
    And I've been really thinking quite a bit about it.
    And I don't always agree.
    But, I think, because things are changing
    and the world, in my opinion, is becoming more unreasonable.
    And we learned nothing, really, from the past.
    And that, I'm thinking about it from time to time
    when I read the newspapers and whatever.
    I was hoping that World War II has taught nations a lot.
    But I'm wrong.
    Obviously, that is not happening.
    And I've been thinking a lot since you asked me,
    what do I think about the museum generally?
    And, what do I think they ought to do?
    Or, am I satisfied that they have
    done everything they can or they are
    licensed to do in this world?
    And I'm not always agreeable myself
    as to whether I have the solution.
    So that's basically, I think, about many times when I read.
    And it reminds me of incidents and pictures of my past.
    And that is reference to the time
    I spent in camps and so on.
    And many times, I get the impression that,
    why did I survive?
    And I get the idea of, maybe it was meant to be.
    Do I owe the world something by doing something or saying
    something on a subject matter?
    But I'm also not discussing these things with anybody,
    except sometimes some incidents come up.
    And, yeah.
    But one thing is I don't share my thoughts of my past
    because, A, I feel that, whoever I talk
    to won't understand it anyway.
    So, what's the point of saying it, or complaining,
    or discussing it?
    I get the impression that people would not understand me anyway.
    Unless you went through things, you won't understand.
    So, what's the point of discussing it?
    So I'm a loner in that respect.
    You lost your childhood in many ways
    having to go through what you did.
    Do you feel you got any of it back?
    No.
    No, but it made me a person that I don't trust people by nature.
    In other words, the idea, many times I've
    been approached in business to join
    and so on, other offices, and so on.
    And I don't do that because there's something in me
    that I don't trust people that they will not double-cross me.
    Another thing because apparently I found out
    that I'm not the only one.
    When I walk into a grocery store,
    I buy 10 times more food than I would consume.
    I was told that I'm not the only one that
    went through the camps because of the hunger and whatever
    that we feel that tomorrow there'll be no food left
    or whatever it is.
    So I buy without any reason tremendous amount of food that
    I cannot consume.
    But, apparently, I've heard from other people
    who went through the camps that they
    do exactly the same thing now.
    So there's something there, I don't
    know why, that the past has something
    to do with my present and my future, yeah.
    For instance, the other day, I was talking about a graduation.
    And I was saying to people that I went through university,
    and so on and so forth, got degrees, and so on.
    But I never attended a graduation.
    In other words, I made them send my degrees
    and whatever because, I felt that, I would be there alone.
    But everybody and family would be there.
    And sooner or later, people would turn and says,
    how come that fellow who has just
    got that degree over there--
    he has nobody there family wise and so on?
    In other words, I don't like to stand up in a crowd
    to speak about the Holocaust.
    I feel that is not a plus.
    So I have some idiosyncrasies, so to speak,
    because of what happened in the past.
    And I don't share it with others or loved ones and nobody.
    So I'm a loner as far as the past is concerned.
    And I don't like to advertise it.
    I don't like-- I'm not proud of the past.
    I'm not too font-- pontificate, so to speak, about the past
    and find flaws or whatever it is.
    So these things, I have in common as many people,
    I understand, who went through the identical thing.
    And many, many, many times, I think,
    I don't know why I survived that, or this, or that,
    not understanding this.
    And I got this word that I've invented
    is hand of God who was there because somebody
    had to be that what happened--
    was responsible that I'm still alive.
    And, of course, the question is, why me?
    And others, I've heard saying the same thing
    went through that we don't know going through whatever
    we did in the camp or even after the camps
    and so on and so forth.
    But I'm not unique in that case.
    But again, I repeat, I don't like to share my experiences.
    What do you think kept you going after you
    didn't see your parents when you, I think, you were 14,
    you said?
    What do you think kept you going?
    You were a young teenager at the time.
    What do you mean exactly?
    How did you keep on going, surviving on your own,
    in a sense?
    Well, I kept on going because I wanted to make sure
    that my parents who were no longer alive
    would be proud of me in Heaven.
    I mean, it sounds silly.
    But in other words, notwithstanding
    that I had tremendous difficulties financially
    and otherwise, that I was going to show
    not the world but my non-existing parents
    that I don't let them down.
    I mean, it may sound not reasonable.
    But this is not to disappoint them in Heaven.
    That's once you heard that they didn't survive.
    Before that--
    Of course, I'm talking about after the war.
    Yeah, but even during the war, how did you
    keep going without your parents?
    You were so young.
    Well, during the war in the camp,
    you tried to survive on a daily basis.
    But you were young.
    Yes, that is right.
    Do you think being that age was an advantage in a sense
    because that you weren't aware of the whole ramifications
    of what was happening?
    Well, that's one thing.
    But many people there were not aware.
    And you didn't know on an hourly basis,
    never mind on a daily basis, what's waiting tomorrow
    morning.
    And many times, you went hungry because by the time
    you were on the line with your dish for the soup,
    they ran out of soup.
    And they told you, get lost.
    And there's nothing you could do about it.
    However, I did many times since then thought about people who
    I've never known, strangers came to my aid
    here and there for no reason at all, no reason at all.
    And yet, I've been thinking about it
    because these people who were old enough to be my parents
    looked at this young kid.
    And many times, they would give me
    a piece of their bread or anything else,
    not that I asked for whatever it is.
    So amazing how strangers had something
    to do directly or indirectly with my survival.
    And even the stranger who got me out of one camp
    to take me to the other camp, me not realizing
    what I'm getting into.
    And he didn't want to see me after that at all and so on.
    And I asked why in my mind.
    And this is where I see this hand of God, what
    strangers sometimes would do and I don't know why,
    which is fantastic.
    But I can understand it that I would do the same thing now
    if I were that.
    I didn't understand it then because I was a young kid.
    You were too young, yeah.
    But I would do it again.
    I would do it not again, I would do it
    because I can see it now why they have done it.
    I didn't see it then.
    At the time, yeah.
    At the time, yeah.
    So you do learn.
    Life teaches you sometimes good things and sometimes
    bad things.
    Do you feel in a sense that you're
    two persons, one person on the inside
    and another one to the outside world?
    Very much so, very much so.
    I'm not trying to hide the past.
    But, somehow, I'm not proud of the past.
    And I don't want anybody's pity.
    And that's why I've been asked many, many, many, many times
    in my lifetime to stand up and tell
    the people who are going to be there what I went through
    and all of this.
    But I don't want to.
    I don't want to.
    I don't want sympathy.
    I don't want pity.
    I don't want anything.
    I'm not that proud of going through pure hell.
    And my joke used to be, I know I won't go to hell because I've
    been there already.
    But that's true.
    Are you angry that you had to go through what you went through
    while children your age, let's say, in the United States
    didn't have to?
    No, I'm not angry, because angry at what or at whom?
    I mean, while other children here
    were playing in their backyards while you
    were going through what you'd had to go through.
    Yeah, you're talking about after liberation.
    No, no, during the war.
    During the war, are you angry that you
    had to go through the wartime experience that you had?
    And right after, yeah.
    And right after, whereas other children in the United States
    were leading a happy childhood.
    Well, it's not my parents' fault. I mean, this was life.
    And I'm just lucky that I survived.
    And so, I feel that, I'm lucky.
    And I kept asking myself many, many times,
    I don't know why me.
    But I'm not the only one who asks those questions.
    Right, of course.
    And I cannot answer the question.
    But it's something that we have to face.
    But, of course, then you have to fight the fighting in you
    that you want to prove to yourself and to the world--
    the world couldn't care less--
    is that you can survive, that you can do,
    notwithstanding A, B, C, D that's happening
    to you, that you will survive.
    I did work extremely hard at university.
    I went through university where I could only
    afford one meal a day.
    But I didn't tell anybody and so on
    because it was very important to get that degree.
    It was very important to get a job because what it paid
    and so on.
    And without me telling anybody that it's their fault
    or whatever it is.
    You accept life as it is and try to make whatever it is.
    Sure, I lost my youth.
    I lost all the things that go with that, the good part.
    And there was a struggle.
    But I'm not saying now, poor me that I
    had to struggle while everybody else just enjoyed life.
    I had to accept the best I can do.
    In my mind, I was looking after myself, like two people.
    And, I felt that, am I doing what my parents would
    have wanted me to do?
    Or, am I-- so on and so forth.
    So I was policing myself sometimes, do I do it right?
    And so on and so forth.
    Yeah, I was looking after myself, so
    to speak, a two-person thing.
    And, would my parents be proud of me if I do this and that?
    That always went through my mind.
    I know you were a child at the time.
    But, how did the experience affect your feelings
    about being Jewish?
    Or, did it affect your feelings about being Jewish?
    It affected me.
    Let me answer your question a little differently.
    When I was in France in the orphanage, the OSE,
    many of the kids there came from camps.
    So we were brothers and sisters, whatever it is.
    The general idea there is, we need revenge.
    And if you have seen the movie Exodus, many of our kids
    in the OSE there were on that real boat.
    I mean, the movie, of course, and so on.
    And they want to Israel--
    the country that hasn't been yet a country--
    to fight.
    And that was for revenge.
    And that's [AUDIO OUT] about.
    And when I--
    I'm also here to light candles once a year
    during the Holocaust Day where I am right now.
    I asked them many times that I like to light a candle--
    seven candle, not six candle.
    Use seven.
    And I said, I wanted seven for all those young kids
    after the war who went to Israel and died.
    There were over 10,000, 11,000 of those kids
    fought during the liberation and died.
    Their idea there was that--
    mind you, life was cheap those days--
    is that they had to have revenge for all the bad things that
    happened in the camp.
    And they were proud to go there to fight and die.
    And I asked the local community here, Jewish community,
    to let me light a seventh candle for those people who have--
    nobody survived-- because they were great heroes in my heart
    that went out after the war-- they didn't have to--
    to fight for Israel, and to show their anger, and whatever
    it is.
    And those were, in my mind, my brothers and sisters,
    so to speak, because they came out, they had great anger,
    and they felt that they can do this and they can do that.
    And they were proud to go and fight and die for anybody.
    But this was a new country that's being born.
    That was the general attitude is after the war,
    especially in institutions where you had these survivors there.
    And I was one of them.
    And I shared with them the idea.
    In fact, I wanted to go too.
    But I had TB.
    And they wouldn't let me, et cetera,
    not realizing what I'm getting into.
    But I was ready to do that.
    And so there was the anger for a long time
    that we owe it to those who didn't make it.
    And we want to fight for it.
    And if you know history, about 10,000,
    11,000 did go, and were involved in the war, and paid the price.
    This is what I'm thinking about.
    And there's nobody to talk about them.
    These are the heroes that there's nobody.
    And that's why I asked the local to allow
    me to light the seventh candle.
    They haven't so far.
    But they're talking about it.
    And I don't like to explain whoever
    is around why I'm doing it and why,
    I believe that, should be done.
    But that's my personal thing that I
    feel that those who survived have not--
    I shouldn't say, received.
    Well, vengeance is not normal and shouldn't be used.
    But the idea is that they all felt the same thing,
    that they don't want to turn the other cheek, so to speak.
    And the time has come that you stand on your own feet
    and fight for whatever rights you have.
    You have the fighting in you that you
    feel that the world took advantage
    of you, the past world.
    In fact, when we left the ghetto,
    and were all going to camps, and so on,
    our elders did not tell us--
    not that we could have done anything about it--
    where we're going and what our chances.
    And they knew.
    Or they ought to have known.
    So there is a fight in you.
    You feel that you were cheated by the world.
    You got cheated by the people around you
    by not telling you the truth, not that you
    could have done something.
    But at least, there were opportunities to do something.
    And so you have the fighter in you that you're now liberated.
    You don't trust anybody.
    And you do find or meet antisemitism.
    I met that in Canada.
    The very first job that I applied for, just a summer job
    during university.
    It was a very large company.
    And they told me right then.
    This goes back many, many years.
    They said, we don't to hire Jews.
    And that was a shock, I thought that what I am.
    And that was in Canada.
    But even in the USA, things were still
    the same what you had during World War II.
    And especially in Canada, what I'm
    told that they had both coming from Europe
    the people escaping.
    And they didn't let the Jews in because they said,
    one is too many.
    So what I'm trying to say, you accept what you get.
    But it doesn't mean that you're really happy with what you get.
    But I wanted to leave Europe for all times, which
    I managed to do.
    So that's a plus.
    And I was able, notwithstanding what
    they had in Canada at the time after World War II, to survive.
    But even at the university that I have applied for,
    I was told by the dean that too many Jewish people,
    youngsters who come to university, and especially
    in the colleges of medicine, law, and two
    or three other ones, and so on and so forth.
    And they apparently had quotas.
    This is in Canada at that time.
    6% whatever it is of the applicants and so on.
    Now that was a shocker to me coming to a country like that.
    But USA was no different.
    Do you have any nostalgia?
    Any what?
    Any nostalgia for Romania, for your birth,
    for your childhood place?
    No, not at all.
    I can't even speak Romanian anymore.
    I forgot everything, I suppose.
    No, no.
    So you don't feel Romanian.
    No way.
    You're Canadian?
    How would you describe yourself?
    Oh, definitely.
    Oh, yes.
    Oh, yes.
    I have definitely been a Canadian.
    And I feel nothing for Romania or, to be honest with you,
    for that part of Europe, all of Europe there.
    Have you been back to Europe at all?
    No.
    The only back--
    I went to Israel.
    So I had stopped in Netherlands for a day.
    But I don't call that--
    And all of Europe, you have no desire.
    Correct.
    Oh, no.
    I don't consider myself a European at all.
    And, I suppose, you know.
    Well, you should know.
    I worked for the prime minister.
    And I was shocked years later that I
    had no problem getting a job.
    I think that they knew, not when they hired me.
    But, eventually, they did know that I was Jewish.
    No problem at all.
    So that's a great plus.
    And, indirectly, I benefited a great deal
    by working and a great privilege when they hired me.
    And at that time, I didn't think about it.
    But, subsequently, I was really very privileged
    that being Jewish meant nothing.
    And I was staying with a Jewish family
    while I was in the same town and so on and so forth.
    So I was very proud.
    And because of that, I kept being somehow active
    in politics in Canada, in conservative policies
    and whatever it is, not now so much, but through the years,
    and by donating, and getting involved in [INAUDIBLE]..
    So when you were working for the prime minister,
    you were living in Ottawa.
    Is that where?
    No.
    I was working for him in the city that he comes from.
    And he had a law office.
    I was not working in the government.
    Oh, I see.
    I see.
    So he hired me.
    It had nothing to do with my political views and whatever it
    is.
    He hired me because he wanted a lawyer, a young lawyer.
    And I learned a lot.
    And even after I left him, I came to the city
    I am right now.
    And because of that, they offered me a part-time job
    as a Crown prosecutor.
    And I've been a part-time Crown prosecutor
    for 16 years in this city before I dropped it.
    And I'm doing civil matters.
    What language do you think in?
    Oh, I would think in English.
    You think in English, OK.
    Oh, yes.
    I speak French.
    But I don't think in French.
    I don't think in any European language.
    Are there any sights today, or smells, or sounds that
    remind you of your childhood, being in the trains,
    being in the camps?
    Anything that brings back those experiences?
    I cannot think of any.
    No, that was a long time ago, I left Europe.
    And I have no desire or connection to visit, or stay,
    or whatever with the exception of, perhaps, France,
    but not Eastern Europe or whatever it is.
    What were your thoughts during the Eichmann Trial?
    Did you have any special feelings at the time?
    Well, the idea is that they should have prosecuted more
    than Eichmann.
    There was many, many who got away as far as prosecuting.
    But it was important to have it because by having it,
    you show the world.
    But, I believe, that today, all these years have passed,
    you will have a more difficult time to prosecute somebody
    like you did Eichmann today.
    In other words, what I find very disappointing that the world
    has changed not for the better.
    And where Europe was still, what's right is right and wrong
    is wrong, that, I think, has vanished in Europe very much so
    in the last few years.
    And the way I look at Europe today
    is what Europe used to be prior to World War II.
    Sometimes, the hatred, the changes, and whatever it is,
    it's not the Europe that I would like to live in even today.
    And I cannot see much difference.
    Mind you, I'm not there on a daily basis or whatever it is.
    You have asked me, what do I think about the museum
    that you're working for and what I would suggest and whatever.
    And I thought about it a long time,
    in today's world, what should be done or could be done.
    And I made a couple of notes and so on.
    I was very impressed of what I saw in Washington, D.C.
    about the Holocaust Memorial Museum.
    And, I think, I mentioned in writing before that the museum
    will survive many generations because it touches
    the heart of many faiths regardless of who they
    are when they come and visit.
    And it will continue to shine the spotlight on areas
    of our world where the horrors of the past is being forgotten
    and/or repeated.
    And we see brutality as it was in the past.
    Now, am I right that you want me to express an opinion as
    to what I think to the future for the museum?
    I'm asking a question.
    If you wish to say anything, that's your prerogative.
    Well, what I believe-- and I did think about it.
    I feel that it should be a duty of the museum
    to remind the world from time to time of any horrors
    that-- what was happening.
    And to remind them, the world, that actually will never
    be forgotten, or forgiven, or accepted by the world.
    And that people in all parts of the world
    will be held accountable and brought to justice.
    I'm convinced that any such declaration and/or
    action by the museum against the perpetrators in the world
    will give the museum the stature it acquired
    since it has been founded.
    Mind you, because the museum is not meant to be an institution
    to police the world from repeating the horrors of World
    War II, I cannot see the museum involvement,
    except for stating numerous times to the perpetrators,
    wherever they are, of a specific horror that they will be held
    accountable and brought to international justice in due
    course.
    And stating that the objective of the Holocaust Museum
    is to make available the names of all the perpetrators
    to every country and get a commitment
    from each country to deny entry to those individuals
    to their country for life.
    I mean, this is a threat.
    And I think about one thing because it was only about two,
    three weeks ago.
    Two elderly ladies in Canada, I think,
    Toronto, came on the television, radio,
    saying that they were survivors of the Holocaust.
    And they feel that all what's going on in the world
    is almost a repetition of the Holocaust
    whether it's Syria or some other places and so on and so forth.
    And they were saying that no country is standing up
    for those victims.
    And then I was thinking about the Holocaust Museum
    that it's not for the museum, of course, to police it.
    But, I think, that the museum should condemn regardless--
    nothing to do with being Jewish or not Jewish--
    against the perpetrators, saying that you cannot get away with
    it.
    That you will be held accountable in the future
    by the world for doing what you're doing.
    It is genocide because that's what you hear.
    It's not only the Middle East.
    It's Africa as well and some other parts.
    And people who are running away from many parts of the world
    because of what's going on there.
    And this hasn't happened since World War II.
    And it's happening now in more places.
    So that's my view because you have established
    something which is fantastic.
    Now that's fine.
    It's in the USA.
    And that's where you have all those people coming day in,
    day out to see it and be a part of it.
    But, have we learned anything from the past
    not to do in the future?
    Obviously, we have not.
    And that bothers me.
    So the question is, whose job is it
    to make it known to the world that's not acceptable?
    And, I think, that you cannot find anything better,
    anybody more well known than the Holocaust Museum in Washington.
    And so anyway, this is just my thoughts.
    OK.
    Well, that's important.
    It's important to you.
    You certainly have the right to say that.
    Lots of people have put their heart and soul
    in the museum volunteering, I think, including you.
    So you're doing a great job.
    But the question is, are you doing
    a great job for the world?
    It's not only for the museum.
    You are for the world.
    Now you're not a police person.
    You cannot say, we're going to go out there and throw you
    into jail.
    You're not saying that.
    You're only saying that we haven't forgotten.
    We'll make it known to the countries in the future
    that whatever you're going to run in the future,
    will catch up with you.
    And we won't let you in or whatever it.
    That is a threat that you cannot get away with it.
    That's basically what a threat is about.
    But I do notice.
    I did notice, especially this year,
    that they have a Holocaust Day in Europe.
    And they had it in Germany.
    They had it in two or three places, Holland
    and some other places.
    And that's great.
    But Europe is something.
    They know what has happened in the past.
    And they can police themselves.
    But, what about the rest of the world?
    They're not doing it.
    I was going to say, that's a very timely message
    to conclude our interview with.
    Is there anything else that we haven't
    discussed that you wanted to include before we end?
    Well, we have discussed my past, which is--
    If there's nothing else, if you feel
    we've covered the important areas, I wanted to--
    I do.
    I mean, you're in command.
    OK.
    Are you satisfied that whatever you wanted to know?
    Yes, very much so, very much so.
    And I wanted to thank you then for agreeing to do
    this interview in two parts.
    Well, I do appreciate it very much.
    And, I think that, I keep repeating that you people are
    doing a tremendous job.
    But you have to make it known to the world
    that it's not forgotten.
    I know World War II was a long time ago.
    But that atrocities committed then and now are not forgotten
    or will not be forgotten.
    Right, absolutely.
    Yeah.
    Well, thank you for doing the interview
    and let me just say that this concludes the interview
    of Gerald Averback.

    Overview

    Interview Summary
    Gerald lsidore Averback (lsidor Averbuch), born on February 19, 1930 in Soroca, Bessarabia (now Moldova), discusses his childhood in Oradea Mare (Romania); his father Samuel, who had a men’s clothing store; going to school until 1943; living in a mixed neighborhood and having non-Jewish friends; speaking Yiddish to his parents and Hungarian to his friends; going to synagogue, observing holidays, and having a Bar Mitzvah; playing violin; moving into a barbwire fenced-in ghetto in 1944 for two and a half months; going by cattle car to Auschwitz around June 12,1944; being separated first from his mother, then from his father; marching with a group of boys aged 13-17 to Birkenau to a children's section; wearing a striped uniform; the roll calls twice a day; eating soup and bread once a day; watching a group of adult men carrying soup cans and on the seventh day the leader telling him to hold on to an empty can and walk with the men to the adult camp; being told to stay hidden and not to talk and after two days, running in a heavy rain with his jacket above his head alongside an adult prisoner and getting in a truck; being taken in July 1944 to a work camp near Breslau, Poland; watching a hanging; working for two months, carrying wood and stones up a hill to fortify a castle; being told to leave the camp and march towards Germany; seeing civilians going in the same direction; sleeping on the ground at night; getting to the Prague, Czechoslovakia train station and staying in a cattle car for two days; Czech people giving them food; going to Flossenbürg camp in late fall of 1944; going after two days by cattle car to Freiberg camp; being sent towards the western front by train; the bombing of the train by the Allies and having a young man whose eyes were shot out fall on top of him; spending hours in a tunnel during the bombing; seeing no soldiers and walking to Tuttlingen, Germany; seeing German soldiers who ordered him into a church basement, then being ordered out as the church was on fire; the wound on his leg from the bombing; hiding in a bunker and being forced to leave; crawling down a hill and being found by French Foreign Legion soldiers; going by jeep the next day to a French base; being flown on a stretcher to Strasbourg, France; going by ambulance to a military hospital in Colmar, France and being taken care of by a Romanian doctor; returning to Strasbourg in August 1945 and then going by train to a Paris military hospital; having to leave because he had tuberculosis; being taken by the Red Cross to a sanitarium in Davos, Switzerland, where he stayed for eight months; the Red Cross taking him to the Œuvre de Secours aux Enfants (O.S.E.) in Versailles, France; living in a children's home with 70 other children; finishing high school near the Sorbonne; going in the fall of 1947 with a group of children to London and then by boat (the “Aquitania”) to Halifax, Canada; flying with the children's group to Montreal, then going to Edmonton, Canada, where his uncle met him; living with a foster family for four years; getting his university degree; receiving $6000 from Germany for reparations in compensation for his mother's and father's death which covered his law school tuition; his feelings that the world has not learned from the past; not sharing his thoughts as others would not understand; still not trusting people and not joining groups; completing school to show his non-existent parents he survived, but not attending his own graduation because he had no family; being a loner because of his past; how he does not want sympathy and does not feel proud of surviving the Holocaust; lighting seven candles for the child survivors who lived with him in the French orphanage and who were then killed in the War of Independence in Israel; having no nostalgia for Romania; having no desire to go to Europe; working privately for the Prime Minister; identifying only as a Canadian; and feeling at once lucky to have survived while also wondering why he survived.
    Interviewee
    Gerald I. Averback
    Interviewer
    Gail Schwartz
    Date
    interview:  2016 October 28

    Physical Details

    Language
    English
    Extent
    2 digital files : MP3.

    Rights & Restrictions

    Conditions on Access
    There are no known restrictions on access to this material.
    Conditions on Use
    No restrictions on use

    Keywords & Subjects

    Personal Name
    Averback, Gerald Isidor.

    Administrative Notes

    Legal Status
    Permanent Collection
    Provenance
    Gail Schwartz, on behalf of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Oral History Branch, conducted the interview with Gerald Averback by telephone on October 28, 2016.
    Funding Note
    The cataloging of this oral history interview has been supported by a grant from the Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany.
    Record last modified:
    2023-11-16 08:13:22
    This page:
    https:​/​/collections.ushmm.org​/search​/catalog​/irn562264

    Additional Resources

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    Time Coded Notes (2)

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    Also in United States Holocaust Memorial Museum oral history volunteer collection

    Consists of interviews with Holocaust survivors and concentration camp liberators conducted by United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Oral History Department volunteer staff. The interviewees, among them survivors from Hungary, Germany, Austria, France, Italy, and Poland, discuss their experiences of life before World War II, life in the ghettos, life in concentration camps, and life after the Holocaust.

    Date: 1993

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    Oral history interview with Adriana Pacifici

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    Oral history interview with Ernest Kolben

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    Oral history interview with Henry Kolber

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    Henry Kolber (b. Hirsch Kolber), born June 6, 1923 in Przysietnica, Poland, discusses his early life in Barcice, Poland; moving with his family to Nowy Sacz, Poland after the German invasion; how the Germans shot and killed 15 Jews and selected 100 other Jews, including his father, to be locked up overnight; working as a grave digger with his father after the Aktions; how he was selected by the Judenrat to go to Rabka, Poland; upon arrival he discovered it was a school to train Ukrainian volunteers to become SS; being assigned work to dig a shooting gallery in the mountains where the new recruits would learn to shoot; covering graves and filling them with dirt and antiseptic; the commander, Rosenbaum, whom he testified against in Hamburg, Germany in 1968; his parents’ deaths in Treblinka; being sent to Krakow to build Płaszów concentration camp; being transferred to Auschwitz; marching in December 1944 in the snow for two days then being taken to Buchenwald by train; living in the barracks with Elie Wiesel; being liberated by American troops; moving to Switzerland with the help of the Red Cross; immigrating to the United States in 1947; and his marriage and children.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Greifer

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    Ruth Greifer (b. Ruth Dahl) discusses her childhood in Geilenkirchen, Germany, and Mastricht, Netherlands; her experiences during the German invasion of the Netherlands; her life in hiding during World War II; her reunion with her parents after World War II; and her life in the United States after 1948

    Oral history interview with Anna Wollner

    Oral History

    Anna Wollner (b. Jakab) discusses her early life in Nagy-Varad, Transylvania (Oradea, Romania); her fiance’s conscription into forced labor; his return and their marriage; being forced into a ghetto; her feelings about wearing the Jewish star; being sent to Auschwitz; being transferred to Stutthof; her friend Suzy, who taught her to sabotage the materials they were working on; being moved to Riga, Latvia by boat; building roads out of Jewish headstones; acts of violence by guards; being marched back to Germany (near Gdansk, Poland); liberation by Russian soldiers; witnessing rapes; returning to Budapest, Hungary; reuniting with her husband; leaving for Munich, Germany after the communists arrived; immigrating to the United States in 1949; divorcing and moving to Israel; returning to the United States; and her feelings about German reparations.

    Oral history interview with Kate Wacz

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    Kate Wacz (née Katalin Kadelburger), born in 1932, discusses her childhood in Budapest, Hungary; her father’s death performing forced labor; going to the Jewish gymnasium; the Germans arriving in March 1944; the school closures; moving to the ghetto; anti-Jewish violence from members of the Arrow Cross Party; the Allied bombings in January 1945; living conditions in the ghetto; liberation; readjusting to life after the war; her mother becoming a Swedish citizen; getting passage to Sweden in 1951; and her life after the war.

    Oral history interview with Erwin Forley

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    Erwin Forley (b. Feuerstein) discusses his childhood in Košice, Czechoslovakia, (now Slovakia) and Munkacs, Hungary (now Mukacheve, Ukraine); his life in the Munkacs ghetto; his family's deportation to Auschwitz at the hands of Hungarian gendarmes; his work in Budy, a sub camp for farming near Auschwitz; his experiences with Kapos in Auschwitz, some of whom he describes as homosexuals; the evacuation of Auschwitz and liberation by Russian troops; his return to Mukacheve; his reunion with his mother and sister; and the family's life in the United States after 1946.

    Oral history interview with Ernie Marx

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    Oral history interview with Doris Rauch

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    Doris Rauch, born August 26, 1920 in Brno, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), discusses her childhood in Brno; the death of her father in 1936; the German invasion of Czechoslovakia; being unable to attend a German-speaking university because she was a Jew; attending a textile school; working in a factory; buying goods on the black market; her deportation to Theresienstadt on a passenger train; volunteering to work planting trees in Bohemia with her mother; returning to Theresienstadt after six weeks; avoiding transports to the East; being put on a transport in September 1942 along with her mother and boyfriend; being taken to Raasiku, Estonia and separated from her mother; being taken to Tallinn, Estonia in December 1942 to clear rubble for the Holzmann construction firm; being taken to a camp in Ereda at the end of 1943; how she and other women stopped menstruating; working in the forest; a romantic relationship between a prisoner and an SS commander; being given a ring by male inmate; contracting hepatitis in Ereda; being taken to Stutthof; how she had written in a diary every day in Estonia; being very sick; arriving at Bergen-Belsen in April 1945; taking another prisoner’s place to work in a factory; finding fliers saying that the Allies were approaching; being taken to the Danish border at the end of April 1945 and turned over to the Danish Red Cross who provided food, care, and new clothing; living in Sweden for two years working as a secretary for the World Jewish Congress; living with two women she met in the camps; moving to the United States in May 1947 and experiencing culture shock; marrying and moving to Chicago, then Pittsburg, and then to Washington D.C.; the effect of her experiences on her religious beliefs; and reparations from Germany.

    Oral history interview with Joseph Elman

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    Joseph Elman, born February 5, 1922 in Pruzhany, Poland (present day Belarus), discusses the German and Russian occupations of Pruzhany; his memories of the murder of 11 Jews in Pruzhany by Nazis; being forced into slave labor; the relocation of his family into the ghetto; daily living conditions in the ghetto, which included starvation and crowding; his work in the ghetto’s food department; the liquidation of the ghetto starting in January 1943; his father’s membership in the Judenrat; his father’s suicide; how he and others built a bunker in the ghetto; his contact with a resistance group which was smuggling weapons into the ghetto; his escape from the ghetto with a large group of people during the liquidation; his experience living in the woods as part of a partisan group; forming family bonds with members of the group; liberation by the Russian Army; returning to his home in Pruzhany to find a family living there; living with this family for a period of time; moving to Bialystok, Poland to join his brother; settling in Łódź, Poland; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with Gerald Rosenstein

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    Gerald Rosenstein (b. Gerhard Rosenstein) describes his early life in Darmstadt, Germany; being attacked and beaten by a schoolmate’s father as a child; immigrating to Amsterdam with his family in May 1940; trying to leave for England after the German occupation; the persecutions Amsterdam’s Jewish community faced; being separated from his family in Westerbork; being sent to Theresienstadt; reuniting with his parents there; living conditions in Theresienstadt; partaking in propaganda for the Red Cross; being deported to Auschwitz with his father; being transferred to Gleiwitz; working conditions in camp; being marched to Blechhammer in January 1945; how he felt at liberation; traveling through Poland, Romania, and Odessa before boarding a Red Cross ship to Paris;

    Oral history interview with Ivan Becker

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    Ivan Becker, born in 1929, discusses his childhood in Budapest, Hungary; his memories of the "hanging priest of Budapest" who killed Jews for refusing conversion to Christianity; the Nazi invasion of Hungary; harsh restrictions on Jews; his father who was sent to Buchenwald; being sent on a death march with his mother from Budapest towards Austria; being separated from his mother and never seeing her again; his life in hiding; his experiences in an unnamed ghetto; his return to Budapest after liberation; his time in a displaced persons camp in Bad Gastein, Austria; his immigration to the United States as a "war orphan" in 1946; and his adjustment to life after the Holocaust and success in business.

    Oral history interview with Romana Koplewicz

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    Romana Koplewicz (née Margitte), born April 26, 1919 in Warsaw, Poland, describes her pre-war life in Poland; her parents and sister; her father’s dye factory; her education at a private Jewish school; her law school education at the University of Joseph Pilsudski in Warsaw; the antisemitism she experienced in law school; meeting her husband in 1936; her inability to complete law school due to anti-Jewish legislation; the beginning of the war and ghettoization in Warsaw; working in her father’s factory; her father’s arrest and return in the spring of 1940; the liquidation of the ghetto; her work sewing German uniforms; her escape with her family from numerous selections; the false papers she and her sister acquired in 1943; her work in the ghetto in a manufacturing factory; working as a housekeeper to survive; her time in Otwock Poland working as a chambermaid in summer 1944 at a convent; her escape to Grodzisko Mazovieckie, Poland because the Gestapo were looking for her; her time working for a German in Warsaw; the Warsaw ghetto uprising; the ghetto’s evacuation and her transfer to Piastów, Poland; her survival and return to Warsaw; her reunion with her husband and their marriage; leaving Warsaw for Germany with her husband; her time in Germany with her husband waiting for their visa to the United States; her immigration to the United States in May 1949; her master’s degree in social work; and her two children and her life in the U.S.

    Oral history interview with Joseph Koplewicz

    Oral History

    Joseph Koplewicz, born December 7, 1915 in Kielce, Poland, describes his pre-war life in Kielce; his parents and siblings; his father’s occupation as a businessman; his education in Kielce and law school education in Warsaw; his family’s religious attitudes; his experiences with antisemitism while attending law school; the beginning of the war; his arrest in Kielce for not wearing a Star of David badge; the ghettoization of Warsaw; performing forced labor in Warsaw; his father’s death due to health complications; his stay with his sister and her husband in a comfortable apartment; his marriage in 1942; being wounded in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; his transfer to Majdanek concentration camp; his transfer to Budzyn labor camp near Krasnik, Poland until February 1944; his transfer to Mielec, Poland where he worked as a draftsman until July 1944; his short time in Wieliczka, Flossenbürg, Litomerice, and Dachau; his transfer to Augsburg, Germany where he worked in airport construction; his time in Kaufering and Nuremburg; a forced march to Landshut, Germany where the SS guards in charge fled; the marchers subsequent scattering; his survival and return to Poland; his reunion with his wife; their decision to leave Poland and immigrate to the United States in 1949; and his post-war life in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Irving Schaffer

    Oral History

    Irving Schaffer, born May 26, 1928 in Chust, Czechoslovakia (present day Khust, Ukraine), discusses growing up in an Orthodox family; his early education; a teacher beating him in front of the class in 1943; experiencing antisemitism before the war; his father’s arrest for receiving milk from a neighbor; the deportation of his father and brother to labor camps; his family’s eviction from their home and deportation to the Chust Ghetto; conditions of the ghetto, such as the Jewish leadership; his assignment as a messenger and pass to leave the ghetto; smuggling in bread from outside the ghetto; people being punished for being Hungarian; being transported by train from the ghetto after three weeks; how partisans blew up the train and told prisoners to jump off and escape; arriving at Auschwitz in the spring of 1944; his memories of Dr. Mengele; being separated from the rest of his family at Auschwitz; being sent to Warsaw, Poland after only three days at Auschwitz; working to clean out the Warsaw Ghetto; prisoners escaping from the Warsaw ghetto; being marched out of the ghetto in August 1944; arriving at Kutno on the German and Polish border; being transported by train to Dachau; living in Camp Seven and working in Mühldorf in an ammunition factory; stealing potatoes and bartering with other prisoners; being transported from Dachau; finding a train transporting sugar that had been bombed and eating the hot sugar; being transported to the Landshut camp; working in Landsberg, Germany; a bombing by American planes; being released by the Germans and then chased down and beaten into a coma; waking up in a German hospital; organizations that assisted in reconnecting families, such as UNRRA and the Joint Distribution Committee; being liberated in Feldmoching, Germany; finding his brother in Chust; how the Russians did not let him leave Chust; escaping across borders into Germany; attending school in Munich, Germany; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with William Klein

    Oral History

    William Klein, born in 1924, discusses growing up in Užhorod, Czechoslovakia (present day Uzhhorod, Ukraine), in a large family; attending Jewish school until the sixth grade, then entering a public high school; the friendliness between Jews and non-Jews in Užhorod; his two older brothers leaving in 1940 for Yugoslavia and Russia with the army; Jews being made to wear the yellow Star of David badge and comply with a curfew beginning in 1942; hearing rumors about Jews being killed in Poland; being forced into the ghetto in January or February 1944; being taken by train to Auschwitz in the spring of 1944; last seeing his parents and sister as they went through the selection process at Auschwitz; being advised by a kapo to volunteer for work outside the camp when he had the opportunity; being taken to what had been the Warsaw Ghetto along with his brother and brother-in-law to demolish buildings and clear debris; finding gold pieces in an abandoned house where he was working and hiding them in a belt; prisoners making up songs and singing as they worked; being forced to march to Dachau as the Russians advanced towards Warsaw; witnessing the death of a rabbi he and his brother had helped on the march; staying in Dachau for a few days; volunteering to work at a construction site; being seriously injured on the construction site and being helped by fellow prisoners, including one who was a doctor; escaping with his brother and brother-in-law from a train and hiding in a farmhouse as the Americans liberated the area; reuniting with his surviving family members in Bratislava and Užhorod; living in Sudetenland and then in a series of displaced persons camps in Germany (Wasserburg, Föhrenwald, and Bremerhaven) and applying to move to the United States; having his application delayed after being accused of being a communist; moving to Chicago in 1951; his pride in his Jewish identity; health problems caused by beatings he received during his time as a prisoner; telling his children about his experiences; and his response to the question of why he does not hate.

    Oral history interview with George Pisik

    Oral History

    George Pisik, born May 25, 1925, describes his experience as a soldier in the U.S. Army’s 15th armored division, 10th infantry battalion; entering Dachau in May 1945 without any prior knowledge of concentration camps; his battalion’s doctor trying to help the prisoners; searching a guard who was subsequently taken by prisoners and killed in the barracks; meeting a 19 year-old female prisoner in Dachau and giving her the mezuzah his grandmother had given him to wear; receiving almost 100 mezuzahs from his family and friends after writing them; giving these mezuzahs to chaplains to distribute and to his fellow soldiers, telling them they were good luck charms; entering Munich and seeing the giant swastika on Munich Stadium, which his commander ordered to be destroyed by tank fire; seeing Germans surrender; conflicts with German civilians; suffering from trench foot and impetigo; returning to the United States expecting to be sent to Japan but staying after the bombing of Hiroshima; after his homecoming, using a swastika flag as a doormat, which drew the attention of the neighborhood and the police when his mother washed it and hung it out to dry; bringing home pistols which his mother took to the army depot to be deactivated; returning to college; his frustration with Holocaust deniers, including a Catholic priest he met in 1950 in Louisiana; the failings of the Catholic Church during the Holocaust; his feelings towards the Germans; his belief that a holocaust could happen again; his level of religious involvement; and the importance of education in preventing another holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Rosicka

    Oral History

    Ruth Rosicka, born August 13, 1919 in Nowice, Czechoslovakia (present day Poland), describes her Polish father who was actively pro-Zion; escaping bombing in Bielsko, Poland; escaping through Krakow, Poland and being found by the Russian army; being deported to a camp in Siberia from which she was amnestied in 1941; being drafted by the Czechoslovakian army and working in the medical brigade, where in 1944 she met her husband; being taken to the Carpathian Mountains, to the war front, where they stayed until February 1945; being released from the Army in May 1945 because of her pregnancy; and living in Prague, Czech Republic after the war.

    Oral history interview with Salomon Cohen

    Oral History

    Salomon Cohen, born July 28, 1937 in Athens, Greece, discusses how his family escaped to the south of Greece in February 1943 with the help of partisans; hiding with his family in the mountains for six months; how the partisans obtained food from monasteries in the mountains for his family; using false names while in hiding; traveling to Izmir, Turkey then Syria; being captured by English troops; how the family was taken to British camps in the Gaza Strip; their escape with the help of a Jewish agency; traveling to Ted Aviv, Israel, where they lived from 1944 to 1952; going into the army as a tank fighter; going to Haifa, Israel after leaving the army; getting married and having children; and his visits to Greece.

    Oral history interview with Suzanne Foldes

    Oral History

    Suzanne Foldes (b. Zsuzsi Morvai) discusses her childhood in Miskolc, Hungary; her Jewish and Christian schooling; pre-war antisemitism; training as a gymnast but being denied entry into the Olympics because she was Jewish; her father’s conscription into Hungarian forced labor; getting married in 1942 to Paul Berkowitz; terminating a pregnancy; the German occupation of Hungary; being confined to a ghetto; being transported to Auschwitz by cattle car; learning of her mother’s death by gassing; moving to Buchenwald; how she was good at stealing coal; liberation; returning to Budapest after the war; reuniting with her father; learning of her husband’s death; marrying a friend from before the war; immigrating to the United States in 1956; and speaking about her wartime experiences beginning in the 1990s.

    Oral history interview with Tibor Vince

    Oral History

    Tibor Vince, born in 1910, describes his childhood near Budapest, Hungary; his medical studies in Italy; his escape to Cuba at the outbreak of World War II; his immigration to the United States; his work as a physician in the United States Army; his experiences at Dachau shortly after liberation; his medical treatment of Allied prisoners of war; and his life in New York, NY after 1945.

    Oral history interview with Elias Piorko

    Oral History

    Elias Piorko, born on May 15, 1919, discusses his childhood in Zambrów, Poland; his life in a kibbutz near Slonim, Poland (now Belarus); his experiences with forced labor in Russia; being in four different camps; his travels through Europe on the way to Italy after World War II; and his life in the United States after 1950.

    Oral history interview with Benjamin Hildesheim

    Oral History

    Benjamin (Beniek) Hildesheim discusses his childhood in Sieradz, Poland; his experiences with antisemitism and Jewish persecution in Sieradz before the Holocaust; his time in the ghettos of Sieradz and Łódź, Poland; his adoption by Chaim Rumkowski; his imprisonment at Auschwitz, Babice/Babitz (a small agricultural camp west of Auschwitz), and Buchenwald concentration camps; his participation in a death march to Theresienstadt, where he remained until liberation; his time in Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), immediately after liberation; his immigration to Palestine in the first Aliyah after World War II in 1945; his participation in the Israel-Arab War of 1948 to 1949; and his life in Brazil and the United States after 1962.

    Oral history interview with Peter Masters

    Oral History

    Peter Masters (né Peter Arany), born February 5, 1922, in Vienna, Austria, describes his prewar life in Vienna; his Viennese mother and Hungarian father; his escape to Britain after the Anschluss in 1938; his family’s internment as “friendly aliens;” his family’s reclassification as enemy aliens in Britain; his experiences volunteering for special hazardous duty in Britain and being assigned the 3rd Group, 10th Commando, an elite paratroop unit mostly consisting of Jewish or political refugees; his identity being anglicized for his protection; his work to petition for the recognition of Austrians who perished fighting the Nazis; his many family members who perished during the war; and his 1997 book, Striking back: A Jewish commando’s war against the Nazis, which he wrote as a counterpoint to the idea the Jews did not fight back during the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Joseph Wolke

    Oral History

    Joseph Wolke (Wolkeovich), born July 14, 1919 in Tomashov (Tomaszów Mazowiecki), Poland, discusses his family background and religious upbringing; his father’s successful farm outside the city; the rise of Hitler and antisemitism; racial laws against Jews; being deported during Rosh Hashanah; arriving in Krakow, Poland on a cattle train; his disbelief that the war would last so long; escaping from the Germans and returning to Tomashov by bus; how the farm provided for the family; increases in the deportation of Jews; living in the Tomashov ghetto; smuggling food into the ghetto; the liquidation of the ghetto on November 1, 1942; the mass burial of Jews in the ghetto for which he was forced to dig graves; being deported to Bergen-Belsen; being transferred on a cattle train to Auschwitz; forced labor digging ditches outside the camp; being relocated to Gross-Rosen camp; the death march from Rosen, which lasted over a week; starvation during the march; liberation by Russian forces; returning home to Poland; meeting his wife and having a child; immigrating to the United States in August 1950; living in Baltimore, MD with his wife’s family; adjusting to American life; creating a business; and learning the fate of his family members in the years following the war.

    Oral history interview with Ionel Ghelman

    Oral History

    Ionel Ghelman, born on March 27, 1929 in Bucharest, Romania, discusses his mother’s death in 1938 and being raised by his maternal aunt; experiencing antisemitism; seeing boys in 1936 practicing to be in the Iron Guard in the future; the German occupation in 1940; the events in January 1941, including pogroms, stores being burned, and Jews being killed; ration cards and how Jews’ ration cards were half of Rumanians’ cards; the Allied bombardments of Bucharest from late 1943 to early 1944; seeing Russian tanks and troops in August 1944; leaving school in 1946 to work in a locomotive factory; rejecting the Communist Youth Party and feeling a connection to Zionist Hashomer Hatzair; going to Bukovina to prepare for kibbutz in Israel; the banning of Zionist organizations in 1949; being a draftsman for oil pipeline company from 1948 to 1950; marrying a Romanian woman in 1956; his children; being expelled from the Communist Party because parents went to Israel; getting visas for Hungary, France, and Germany in 1976; going to New York in April 21, 1977 with the help of HIAS; and settling in Washington and working for Bechtel.

    Oral history interview with Irimia Solomon

    Oral History

    Irimia Solomon, born on November 3, 1924 in Dorohoi, Romania, describes his parents, who were divorced; how he and his mother lived with his grandparents in Falticeni, Romania; his granfather’s farm; the Jewish community in the town and his family not being particularly religious; Jews in Moldovan cities; his education; playing soccer with non-Jewish children; hearing about antisemitism; wanting to go to Palestine; going to school in Bucharest, Romania to learn a trade; his relationship with his father; an uprising in Romania in September 1940; the Iron Guard (Garda de Fier); returning to Falticeni in December 1941; going to Dorohoi; his father being taken away in June 1942; being taken to forced work, unloading rail cards and sweeping; being deported with his mother to Transnistria and conditions during the journey there; having to trade in their Romanian money for Russian rubles; arriving in Sharhorod, Ukraine; being housed in a synagogue for several weeks; staying in a room in a house of a Christian family with other Jews; being in a ghetto, where there was religious life but no cultural life; building roads and sleeping overnight in rail cars outfitted with bunk bed; typhus in Sharhorod and helping to bury the dead; his mother not working and staying indoors; being helped by a cousin’s Christian husband; being taken back to Dorohoi in December 1943; moving from house to house until they could contact relatives; not feeling relief or happiness; his mother being treated as a war widow and being allowed to sell certain items, such as stamps, alcohol, and tobacco; returning to school and going to the polytechnic in 1945; waiting from 1958 to 1972 to get a passport; going to Israel, where his wife did not like the heat; going to Canada, where they settled in Toronto; working as an engineer; and moving to Montreal.

    Oral history interview with Lotte Salus

    Oral History

    Lotte Salus (b. Charlotte Helena Cohen) discusses her childhood living near the Dutch border in Germany; working for a Jewish family; being arrested and pressed into labor after Kristallnacht; being sent to Amsterdam, Netherlands by her father; living with other Jewish teenagers in The Hague, Netherlands; learning her family had been deported to Westerbork; moving to Amsterdam in May 1940; receiving orders to register with the police; being deported to Westerbork; reuniting with her family; daily life in Westerbork; volunteering to go to Theresienstadt with her parents in 1944; her experiences in the camps Auschwitz, Stutthof, and Praust; being taken on a death march in March 1945; liberation by the Russians; sexual violence perpetrated by the Russians; returning to Germany; immigrating to the United States in 1949; and marrying and starting a family.

    Oral history interview with Irena Kirkland

    Oral History

    Irena Neumann discusses her childhood in Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); not having a Jewish identity or religious education; evacuating Prague before the Munich Agreement; returning to the city and learning she was Jewish; adapting to restrictions placed on Jews; her feelings about wearing the yellow star; being deported to Theresienstadt with her family; daily life in the camp; contracting encephalitis; being deported to Auschwitz; conditions in camps Auschwitz and Sachsen Chemnitz; returning to Theresienstadt in May 1945; reuniting with her parents; liberation by Russian soldiers; returning to Prague; beginning university; being arrested and released by communists; and immigrating to the United States in 1956.

    Oral history interview with Hans Hirsch

    Oral History

    Hans George Hirsch discusses his early life in Stuttgart, Germany; his father’s role as executive director of the German Jewish Community; graduating gymnasium in 1934; prewar antisemitism; the difficulties he experienced attending university and holding a job in Nazi Germany; visiting Palestine in 1937; receiving a visa to leave for the United States in 1937; working on farms in the U.S.; trying to get his parents out of Europe; teaching German prisoners of war farm management from 1943 to 1946; his career trajectory in food administration and policy; and his retirement from foreign agricultural service.

    Oral history interview with Milton Shurr

    Oral History

    Milton Shurr, born January 28, 1911 in the United States, describes his work with the Jewish Welfare Fund in Oklahoma City, OK in the early 1940s; his draft into the military and entering Officer’s Candidate School; being shipped overseas to England, where he worked in preparation for D-Day in June 1944; his recruitment by the Civil Affairs Unit of the Military Government to gather and identify medical supplies left behind on Omaha Beach, France; helping to provide food for the 15,000 survivors of Buchenwald and working with the Red Cross and Joint Distribution Committee; traveling to Bavaria, Germany to work has a health welfare officer; working to reopen schools, hospitals, banks, and other institutions in Germany; maintaining correspondence with his wife in America during the war; returning to the United States after the war and moving to Chicago as an assistant in health planning; and sharing what he had witnessed in Buchenwald after years of being unable to speak about it.

    Oral history interview with Ludwig Jacob

    Oral History

    Ludwig Jacob discusses his early life in Schmalkalden, Germany; being arrested with his parents on Kristallnacht; being imprisoned in Buchenwald for a month; leaving on a Kindertransport to Holland; living in a children’s home; the German invasion; moving to his brother’s home in Amsterdam; the arrest of his brother, who subsequently was imprisoned and died in Mauthausen; receiving a deportation notice; choosing to live under a false identity; moving to Paris, France and working with the underground; sabotaging the German defense organization where he worked; being denounced and arrested; spending time in Fresnes prison before being deported to Drancy; jumping off the train on the way to Buchenwald; rejoining the resistance; working for Americans in Paris; immigrating to the United States in 1947; and his marriage and life in the US.

    Oral history interview with Barbara Artman

    Oral History

    Barbara Feuerstein Artman, born September 12, 1923 in Kosice, Czechoslovakia (now Slovakia), discusses her parents Elizabeth and Henry Feuerstein and two younger brothers; her 14 aunts and uncles and 27 first cousins, who all perished in the Holocaust; her family’s move to Mukacheve, Czechoslovakia (now Ukraine), which in March 1939 was occupied by Hungry; the Nazi invasion of Hungary in 1944; being forced to live in a ghetto; conditions in the ghetto; her deportation with her family to Auschwitz; conditions in Auschwitz; the treatment of camp guards; being sent to a labor camp near Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland) with her mother; their liberation by the Russians while on a march; walking, at the end of the war, to Krakow; reuniting with one brother; attending medical school but changing her major to chemistry; contacting uncles in United States who arranged for visas and transportation to the US for her, her mother, and her brother; and settling in Forest Hills, NY, where she married another refugee and had one son.

    Oral history interview with Fritz Schonbach

    Oral History

    Fritz (né Frederic) Schonbach, born in 1920, discusses his middle-class childhood in Vienna, Austria; attending private school until Jewish restrictions began in 1938; how life changed with the Nazi annexation of Austria; antisemitism in Austria and the terror campaigns; fleeing to Italy then to England in 1939; his family fleeing to Argentina while he remained in England; his internment in England because of his Austrian background; volunteering for the Australian army; daily life in the army; being discharged in 1946; enrolling in art school after the war; meeting his wife; reuniting with family in Argentina; immigrating to the United States in 1959; and discovering what happened to various family members in the war.

    Oral history interview with Charles Barber

    Oral History

    Charles Barber, born in 1932 in Budapest, Hungary, describes his father, who owned a liquor store; attending a public grade school, where some of the non-Jews wouldn't speak with him; his memories of the first bomb being dropped in Budapest in 1939; his father being drafted into the labor corps of the Hungarian army; his mother’s work as a tailor; being an only child; his father dying after two months in the labor corps; his mother being taken to a camp for eight months in 1943; living with several different people; his mother returning home; his memories of feeling guilty for telling his mother that he was hungry; the Jews being summoned to the courthouse in town and being separated from his mother by the officials; going to live in an orphanage with a Swedish flag out front; the Russian army and their activities in Budapest; his aunt sending him to the Red Cross then a Zionist orphanage in Sagat; returning to Budapest to work in a factory; attending law school but leaving when the revolution began; going to Austria and then the United States with the help of the Red Cross; living with an uncle in the US; becoming an accountant, attending Queensborough Community College and then Bernard Baruch College; working for ABC Transnational Transport; getting married to an Austrian Holocaust survivor; the effects of his Holocaust experience; losing his faith when he lost his parents; visiting Europe; antisemitism in Hungary; wanting to go to Israel; possessing a letter from his mother, which she wrote while she was in Bergen-Belsen, and a picture of his parents (which is in the USHMM Photo Archive); and his other family pictures.

    Oral history interview with Tibor Borsos

    Oral History

    Tibor Borsos, born on March 12, 1927 in Budapest, Hungary, describes his highly intellectual Catholic family; his family moving to Debrecen in 1936; having many Jewish friends; how he “looked Jewish” and was sometimes made fun of; his family’s possession of an American flag, National Geographic magazines, and a censored version of Time magazine; his family burning the American flag March 21, 1944 to be safe; his family storing carpets, silver, and jewelry for Jewish friends and hiding them in the university library; his mother being denounced, arrested, and released; his family leaving Debrecen in May 1944; witnessing Jews being rounded up; going to Budapest and living next door to a Swedish protected house; the closing of schools in the fall of 1944; his family going in December 1944 to Halle an der Saale, Germany, where his father taught in a medical school; being drafted into the Hungarian Army in March 1945 and riding on a train for two months to avoid finding his unit; finding his brother on May 8, 1945 in Mitterald; being rounded up by Patton’s troops and sent to Ludwigshafen, Germany; being sent to a POW camp in Heilbronn; going to Gottingen in the British Occupation Zone; sailing to the United States in December 1949 on the USS Harry Taylor; earning a Ph.D. in chemistry at Johns Hopkins; researching cancer at NIH; marrying a survivor of Bergen-Belsen; and his feelings about not being officially Jewish.

    Oral history interview with Robert Kertesz

    Oral History

    Robert Kertesz, born in 1933, discusses his childhood in Budapest, Hungary; antisemitism in Budapest; his family; his religious upbringing; being stuck in Hungary due to travel restrictions; his father being conscripted into the Hungarian Army; the Hungarian Nazis and Arrow Cross Party members in his neighborhood; the increasing antisemitism and abuse; how the ghetto grew in 1943; finding safe houses for children; escaping from the ghetto after his parent’s deportation; hiding in his Christian aunt’s home; returning to Budapest to escape violence; returning to the ghetto; living conditions in the ghetto; liberation by the Soviets; looting by the Soviet Army in the city; working as a guide and interpreter for Russians; his parents’ return; living in a displaced persons camp; immigrating to the United States in 1948; and his life in the U.S.

    Oral history interview with Fred Kahn

    Oral History

    Fred Kahn, born December 19, 1932 in Wiesbaden, Germany, describes being raised until he was six years old by an aunt (Rosa Nassauer) in Wehen, Germany; his older brother, Walter; his Christian friend, Walter Kaltwasser, who protected him from young Nazis; being raised religious by his aunt and uncle; his grandfather dying in 1938; being sent after the Munich Agreement to Aachen, Germany, where he crossed the border and joined his parents and brother in Verviers, Belgium; his father’s successful career as playing bridge; his aunt and uncle being sent to Łódź, Poland; starting school in Belgium; his parents and life in Verviers; going to Liege and Brussels in May 1940 with his family; returning to Verviers; Jews having to register; the small right-wing party, Rexiste, which collaborated with the Nazis; his father being interrogated; getting false identities with the last name Jejeune; being taught Catholic prayers; getting scarlet fever in the spring of 1942; leaving his school after getting in a fight; his principal helping him; going into hiding and the various ways he entertained himself; moving from village to village in 1943; getting a job in 1944, carrying milk; being liberated in September 1944 by the American Army; life when he was in hiding; his mother’s accused of being a German spy and arrested; the Battle of the Bulge; events he heard about involving the underground; factors that helped him survive; developing a sense of humor; and considering Verviers his hometown.

    Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

    Oral History

    Susan Warsinger (née Hilsinrath), born in 1929, discusses her family and childhood in Bad Kreuznach, Germany; her memories of Kristallnacht; escaping to Paris, France; being homeless; fleeing to Versailles when the Germans invaded; going to Château des Morelles, a home for homeless children; her schooling; getting tickets to the United States from the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society; immigrating to the U.S. in 1941; her life in the U.S.; her feelings about returning home to Europe; and her life since the war.

    Oral history interview with Arnold Weiss

    Oral History

    Hans Arnold Wangesheim, born in Nuremberg, Germany on July 25, 1924, describes his parents divorcing in 1930; his mother placing him in a very strict Jewish orphanage in Furth; his encounters with Hitler youth; getting passage on a Kindertransport with help of Quakers in 1938; going to Chicago, IL then Milwaukee, WI; running away from a Jewish orphanage and being placed with a family in Janesville, WI; attending a watchmaker’s college; enlisting in 1942 in the Army Air Corps and being a B-17 tail gunner; his training plane crashing in Utah in 1943 and being severely injured; going to OSS (Office of Strategic Services) in Washington in 1944; going in late 1944 to Paris, France then Germany; crossing the Rhine with the 4th Division behind German lines picking up mail from agents; seeing Nuremberg bombed; going back to Furth; going in April 1945 to Dachau to get important political prisoners, including the former French Prime Minister Leon Blum; locating the prisoners in Innsbruck, Austria; his counterintelligence work for de-Nazification and working with Hugh Trevor-Roper to hunt down Wilhelm Zander; being assigned to trace enemy assets including Nazi treasures and Reichsbank gold; his work interrogating Germans, doing anti-Soviet intelligence, and being sent to Czechoslovakia as a contact for Hungarian agents; returning to the US, attending school, and working for the US Treasury; and working for a law firm.

    Oral history interview with Sia Hertsberg

    Oral History

    Sia Hertsberg (née Izrailewitsch), born June 8, 1927 in Riga, Latvia, describes her early family life and schooling; the Jewish community and the state of antisemitism in pre-war Riga; the 1940 Russian invasion; her family’s persecution at the hands of the Russian communists; the 1941 Nazi occupation and implementation of Nazi race laws; the burning of Riga’s synagogues; the help her family received from non-Jewish friends; the establishment and the later liquidation of the Riga ghetto; how a Latvian soldier attempted to rape her; avoiding the Rumbula massacre; working as a seamstress in a Reichskommissariat workshop; her family’s transport to the Kaiserwald concentration camp; how her father saved her sister several times by hiding her amidst the trash or in a pot of soup when the Nazis were looking for young children; the Nazis’ theft of her childhood; the normalcy of discussing death; her family’s transport via ship and cattle car to Stutthof; the typhus epidemic and her work carrying the dead to the crematorium; her mother’s death; her and her sister’s escape from a death march; seeking shelter and being turned away by Polish peasants; liberation by Russian soldiers on March 23, 1945; hospitalization and her sister’s death; her deep depression at losing her family; her hospitalization in Kolomna, Russia; her return to Riga and reunion with her father; falling in love with her future husband; their attempts to illegally immigrate to the United States and her father’s subsequent imprisonment by the Russians; the birth of her two sons; finishing her schooling; her husband’s death; her move to Chicago, Illinois and her post-war life in the United States; and her father’s death on the same day as her sister, thirty years later.

    Oral history interview with Chava Frajhof

    Oral History

    Chava Frajhof (née Geister), born September 20, 1923 in Belzyce, Poland, discusses her family; the German invasion of Poland in 1939; hiding from the Germans; paying the Judenrat to be assigned work in Będzin, Poland; working as a seamstress; being sent to Kraśnik, Poland in 1943; being liberated by the Soviets; fleeing to Lublin, Poland; having a family; going to Frankfurt, Germany then Berlin, Germany; and immigrating to Brazil in 1953 to join her family.

    Oral history interview with Israel Frajhof

    Oral History

    Israel Frajhof, born March 3, 1920 in Krasnik (near Lublin), Poland, describes experiencing violent antisemitism in 1933; the establishment of a ghetto in the fall of 1942; the typhus epidemic and conditions in the ghetto; working outside the ghetto; the deportation of old men, women and children deported to Majdanek and Treblinka in December 1942; trying to become a policeman but being declined permission; doing carpentry work for Germans making furniture; appels, beatings, and sleeping in the synagogue; meeting his future wife Chava Geister, who was in Krasnik camp; the Russians’ arrival in Lublin on July 22,1944; the death march to Germany and escaping into the forest for 10 days; meeting up with Chava and going to Krasnik; going to Lublin; getting married in January 1946; going to Berlin , Germany and being helped by the UNRRA; going to Frankfurt, Germany; going to Brazil in 1953; visiting Majdanek in 1986; and living for his wife and children.

    Oral history interview with Edward Novakoff

    Oral History

    Edward Novakoff, born in 1926 in Boston, Massachusetts, discusses his Ukrainian and Lithuanian immigrant parents; enlisting in the U.S. Army in December 1943; being shipped to Marseilles, France with the 90th Infantry Division; seeing his company wiped out in November 1944; fighting in southern Germany in January 1945; arriving at Flossenbürg in May 1945 and seeing the conditions and the survivors; his transfer to the 26th Regiment, 1st Infantry in August 1945; guarding prisoners for the Nuremburg Trials; having contact with Nuremburg prisoners; returning to the U.S. in December 1945; his life after the war; and helping to create the largest Jewish cemetery in the Boston area.

    Oral history interview with Celia Feldschuh

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Nicole Yancey

    Oral History

    Nicole Yancey (née Guggenheim), born July 26, 1941 in Saint-Amand-Mont-Rond, France, describes having one sister, Nanette, born November 1938; being separated from her family when she was two years old and sent to a farm to live in a safe and secure environment; still today calling the farmer and his wife her real grandparents; members of the French Resistance coming in for meals because the farm was close to the demarcation line and there was lots of Resistance activity; her daily routine of working, hiding, and eating; how her relationships were all very harmonious; being moved back to Orléans, France when she was five years old and starting school; the severe personality changes of her parents because of their experiences during the Holocaust; the torment her father experienced because he was not able to save his brothers from being murdered; being sponsored by a French/American agency to attend William and Mary College, where she met her husband; remaining in the Tidewater, VA area; converting to Catholicism because her husband is Catholic as are her children; her position now as Consul for the French Embassy in Norfolk, VA; and her assertion that tragedies like the Holocaust will continue as long as people do not learn to accept each other and their differences.

    Oral history interview with Jaffa Munk

    Oral History

    Jaffa Munk (née Noemi Donath), born April 10, 1931 IN Ónod, Hungary, describes her father Philippe, who was a Rabbi, and her mother Olga Shick Donath; having one brother, Joseph, and one sister, Esther Judith; living a very normal life with a family that was religious yet open-minded and encouraged academics; the many changes that began in 1942 and 1943; being moved in May 1944 to the ghetto, where her father was put in charge; being sent to Auschwitz; the brutal arrival and her father’s last words to her: “Wherever you go, continue to believe in God;” being marched to Birkenau, which was the very last time she saw her mother; being selected by Mengele in September 1944 to go to Bergen-Belsen and the grim living situation there; the forced evacuation in January 1945 and a subsequent six week death march; escaping to a forest and being liberated May 8, 1945 by Russian soldiers; eventually returning to Budapest, Hungary, where she lived at an Orthodox refugee orphanage facility, which was started by Esther Eckstein with education as the primary goal; going with a Zionist group with 1800 refugees to Palestine on a boat leaving from Bucharest, Romania and the refusal of the British to allow them entry, but finally being allowed to land at Haifa, Palestine; the break-out of war in 1947 and the desperate living conditions during the war; being taken to Tel Aviv, Israel, where there was less danger and where she attended teacher’s seminary; meeting her husband, who was in the Army; the birth of her first son, Gabriel, which was the highlight of her life because it meant continuation of her family; her teaching positions, starting with 1st grade, where students came from 30 different countries; and how her personal strengths are her sense of hope and having a positive outlook.

    Oral history interview with Frances Hirshfeld

    Oral History

    Frances Hirshfeld (née Frieda Miriam Rosenbloom), born in 1918, discusses her family and childhood in Opatów, Poland; moving to Zawiercie, Poland and its local Jewish population; the beginning of the war; her religious life; antisemitism; Kristallnacht; going into hiding in Ukraine and returning to Poland; the Judenrat; adjusting to anti-Jewish laws; moving into the ghetto; living conditions in the ghetto; being deported to Auschwitz in 1943; living conditions in Auschwitz; being moved to Birkenau; contracting typhoid fever and scabies; lack of medical care; bombings near the camp; returning to Auschwitz; hearing about the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; working in a munitions factory; being on a death march to Ravensbrück; escaping into a forest; liberation by the Soviets; immigrating to the United States in October 1946; her husband immigrating to the U.S. in 1949; visiting Poland; her feelings about Holocaust deniers; and her life after the war.

    Oral history interview with Moris Gluckman

    Oral History

    Moris Glukman, born in Suceava, Romania in 1924, discusses his childhood; the rise in antisemitism; deportation announcements; his arrival in Bessarabia (in Moldova and Ukraine) with his family and how the peasants took the belongings of the Romanian Jews; travel to Moravia, Czech Republic; living at the mercy of the Romanian Gendarmerie; the spread of typhus and diphtheria during the winter of 1941-1942; how the Ukranian police guarded the village in Moravia; the German entrance into Moravia; building bridges and excavating coal from open mines; his knowledge about events in Bessarabia and Russian positions and the approaching front; working in a Kolkhoz; being liberated by the Russians; his schooling in Bucharest, Romania; and immigration to the United States in 1983.

    Oral history interview with Margie Rosenthal

    Oral History

    Margie Rosenthal (née Margit Mary Miedzwinski), born July 19, 1927 in Gleiwitz, Germany (Gliwice, Poland), describes her prewar childhood; her family’s immigration to the Philippines after the Nazi invasion so that her father could continue in the lumber business; her pleasant life in the Philippines until the Japanese bombing in December 1941 and subsequent invasion; severe changes in their lives in Pasay City as Americans began bombing nearby Manila; the delay in her family’s move to the United States in 1948 as a result of immigration quotas; her life in San Francisco; and her marriage to her husband, Ernie.

    Oral history interview with Emma Mogilensky

    Oral History

    Emma Mogilensky (née Hubert), born May 22, 1923 in Kronheim, Bavaria, describes living in the house that had been built by her great-grandfather; having one brother and one sister; living in a friendly and peaceful community until Kristallnacht on November 9, 1938 when antisemitism became so violent that she was sent to Nuremberg, Germany; enrolling in a very strict, all Jewish high school; moving to Augsberg, Germany after her father was released from Dachau; the children’s transport, going to Munich, Germany and being transferred to a boat; finally arriving in London, England, where she and the other children were chosen for English homes such that not one of them would become a public charge; being sent to live with a couple, both physicians, who were extremely helpful; attending school again where English Literature became her best subject; being a Fire Watcher at St. Paul’s Cathedral and joining the British Army when she was 17; antisemitism in the Army; being a cook for 2,000 men; receiving her GED; subsequently attending college on the GI Bill; a trip to Israel with her children after her husband’s death; finding that the cemetery where her grandparents were buried was not desecrated and finding their graves; visiting her foster parents in England every year; and her serious commitment to speaking about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Isaiah Henig

    Oral History

    Isaiah Henig (né Yeshiah Henig), born in 1915, discusses his childhood in Szydlowiec, Poland; his family and the Jewish community; his religious upbringing; the absence of antisemitism before the war; changing anti-Jewish attitudes after the German occupation; the outbreak of the war and changes in daily life; being conscripted for forced labor; the creation of the ghetto; living conditions in the ghetto; working as a laborer in Starachowice, Poland; diseases in the camp; working to build replacement parts for machines; not believing reports about Jewish deaths; being deported to Birkenau in the summer of 1944; working in a factory; being moved to other concentration camps, including Mauthausen and Hannover; Allied bombing of the area; being deported to Bergen-Belsen; living conditions in the camp; his job building cannons; liberation by the British; moving to a displaced persons camp; immigrating to the United States in 1951; his life after the war; and his feelings about what happened.

    Oral history interview with Ida Henig

    Oral History

    Ida Henig (née Markowicz), born in 1924, discusses her family and childhood in Lódź, Poland; Łódź’s Jewish community and economy; not experiencing antisemitism before the war; changing anti-Jewish attitudes when the Germans invaded; fleeing to Częstochowa, Poland; working in the ghetto; not believing stories of mass murder; the Jewish police; liberation by the Soviets in January 1945; going to Germany; coming to the United States in the 1950s; the fates of her family members; and her feelings about the Holocaust and war.

    Oral history interview with Marcel Drimer

    Oral History

    Marcel Drimer (b. Marceli Drimmer), born in 1934, discusses his childhood in Drohobych, Poland (present day Ukraine); his family; his religious upbringing; life before the war; the Russian occupation; the German invasion in 1941; the looting of Jewish property; the deportations in 1942; moving into the ghetto; the fates of his family members; Ukrainian and German police; the Judenrat; hiding in an attic for a week; escape plans being postponed due to the death of his father; how his female relatives were saved by a woman who was recognized as a righteous gentile; their living conditions while in hiding; liberation by the Soviets; adjusting to life after the war; his education; difficult living conditions in Poland; post-war anti-Semitism; immigrating to the United States in 1961; his family going to Israel; and his feelings about the war, Poland, and anti-Semitism.

    Oral history interview with Michael Silberstein

    Oral History

    Michael Silberstein (né Mieczyslaw Silberstein), born in 1930 in Grudziadz, Poland, discusses his family; life before the war; the arrival of the German Army when he was nine years old; moving to Łódź, Poland; the establishment of the Łódź ghetto; being an errand boy and getting arrested in 1942; escaping arrest; living conditions in the ghetto; being deported to Birkenau in the summer of 1944; being sent on a death march in January 1945; arriving in Mauthausen; conditions and life in Mauthausen; liberation by the Americans; reuniting with his family; meeting family in England; immigrating to the United States in1952; being drafted into the U.S. Army; and his life after the war.

    Oral history interview with Joan Schwab

    Oral History

    Joan Schwab (née Nussbaum), born on March 24, 1926, describes living in the Tiergarten area of Berlin, Germany; her memories of Kristallnacht and how two men came for her father; being placed on a Children’s Transport to England on May 21, 1939; staying with Norman and Elsie Denham and going to secondary school and Hebrew school; her brother joining her in August 1939; evacuating in September to Chichester; conditions in the home, where she shared a bed with four girls and showered every two weeks; graduating from high school in 1944 and going back to Denhams in London; sleeping in an air raid shelter when V2 rockets attacked; going after the war to the Joint Distribution Committee in Munich, Germany and finding out that her parents perished in Auschwitz and her grandfather died in Theresienstadt; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with Erwin Deutscher

    Oral History

    Erwin Deutscher, born on January 28, 1923 in Vienna, Austria, describes being raised with thorough religious training; being in the Zionist Youth group, HaShomer HaDati; how his maternal grandfather had gone to the United States in 1898 to Oklahoma City, OK; his Bar Mitzvah in 1936; hearing about Hitler’s arrival on March 11, 1938; his father’s dairy business closing; his mother being arrested; getting notice that his youth group was going to go to Palestine and meeting Eichmann at the emigration office with his father; conditions getting worse in Vienna; traveling with 25 others by train to Trieste and by boat to Haifa and arriving October 24, 1938; going to Mikveh Israel agricultural school for two years then to Bnai Akiva yeshiva for another two years; working for Haganah and meeting his wife; fighting in the Israeli War of Independence; his father being taken to Dachau after Kristallnacht and then to Buchenwald from June 1939 to January 1940; his parents immigrating to the United States; his life after the war working for a life insurance company; and getting a Ph. D. in Hebrew letters at Hebrew Union College.

    Oral history interview with George Pick

    Oral History

    George Pick, born in Budapest, Hungary on March 28, 1934, describes his very large extended family; his father losing his job in May 1939 and being sent on labor brigade in September 1940 for three months; seeing German tanks in the streets on March 9, 1944 and the subsequent anti-Jewish laws after including wearing the yellow star and not being allowed to attend school after April; his father having to leave again; being ordered to move to special Jewish houses in the summer of 1944; the air raids in Budapest and the massive bombings on July 2, 1944; his father’s return; he and his mother joining his father in hiding in a uniform factory building in November 1944; the factory being raided December 2, 1944 and bribing their way out; being taken to a Red Cross building and running away; going to the ghetto on December 14, 1944 and his father being in the ghetto police; the siege of Budapest; Wallenberg saving Jews from a massacre in January 1945; liberation; starting school; his Bar Mitzvah in 1947; attending university; going to Austria and then the United States, where his uncle lived; working for the Navy as mechanical engineer and retiring in 1996; his three marriages and not having children; and his commitment to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Hedi Pope

    Oral History

    Hedi Pope (née Politzer), born March 18, 1920 in Vienna, Austria, describes her prosperous family, which was neither religious nor political; wanting to be a dancer as a child; the increase in anti-Semitism in Vienna; her memories, day-by-day, of Hitler’s invasion of Austria in March 1938; rising fears to speak out about Hitler’s actions; her memories of Kristallnacht; her father being sent to Dachau; the difficulty of getting all the documents to go to the United States; immigrating to the U.S. in January 1939; living in Newark, NJ; joining the Refugee Artist’s Group as a dancer; going to Miami University in Ohio and graduating in 1942; having two children; maintaining a dance studio in Alexandria, VA until 1980; and working with the volunteer corps at USHMM.

    Oral history interview with Bella Simon Pasternak

    Oral History

    Bella Simon Pasternak, born in 1928, discusses her liberation from Auschwitz by Russians; walking home to Hungary during the winter; being hospitalized with frostbite and starvation; living in a displaced persons camp in Innsbruck, Austria; immigrating to the United States in 1946; her first impressions of the U.S.; Americans’ disbelief at her experiences; meeting her husband, who was also a survivor; her religious views becoming more orthodox; desiring to immigrate to Israel; coping with the Holocaust many years after it occurred and still experiencing nightmares; and how important her grandchildren are to her.

    Oral history interview with Marion Friedman

    Oral History

    Marion Friedman (b. Traute Marion Julia Georgia Sulimas), born in 1922, discusses her childhood in Hamburg, Germany; being raised with her Christian mother and Jewish father; her parents’ upbringings; celebrating both Christian and Jewish holidays; her brothers’ immigrations to China and the United States; the Aryanization of her father’s bank; her mother’s resourcefulness; receiving a visa along with her mother to go to the U.S.; being sent to the U.S. on her own because her mother decided to stay with her father; learning of her parents’ arrest and deaths; adjusting to life in the U.S.; meeting her husband; returning to Germany long after the war; meeting her German family; and dealing with her losses on a daily basis.

    Oral history interview with Elizabeth Strassburger

    Oral History

    Elizabeth Strassburger, born in 1938, discusses her childhood in a small town near Zakopane, Poland; her father’s arrest and imprisonment in Siberia; being forced into the Tarnow ghetto with her mother and grandmother; watching her grandmother being taken by the Germans; hiding under an assumed Christian identity; being drugged and hidden in a basement during dangerous times; the family who hid her and her mother; believing she was a Catholic; her Catholic schooling; liberation by the Russians; learning she was Jewish after the war; being smuggled out of Poland with her mother; living at a Jewish orphanage with her mother in Germany; learning her father was alive; moving to Italy to be with her father; immigrating to England with her family; immigrating to the United States; adjusting to life as a teenager in the U.S.; her marriage; studying social work in college; her volunteer work; and her family.

    Oral history interview with Jadwiga Dziekonski

    Oral History

    Jadwiga Dziekonski, born in 1919, discusses her family’s emigration from Kiev, Ukraine to Warsaw, Poland in 1921 because of the revolution; her Catholic upbringing; attending public school; following the political situation in Germany; meeting her husband; the German invasion and occupation; her father’s exile in London, England as a member of the Bank of Poland; moving to Warsaw with her husband; her husband’s role in the Home Army; her daughter’s birth in 1943; sheltering two Jewish women in her mother’s apartment; the Polish underground’s participation in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; the Warsaw Uprising; her husband’s arrest and imprisonment in Bergen-Belsen and Gross-Rosen; liberation; readjusting to life after the war; escaping to London through Sweden in 1947; leaving her mother behind; reuniting with her father; immigrating to Detroit in 1951; visiting Poland in 1988 to see her husband’s family; her feelings about being Polish; how she feels about Jewish people and German people; and her two visits to Israel.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Harvey

    Oral History

    Ruth Harvey, born in 1928, describes growing up with mixed Jewish and Christian heritage; her childhood in Berlin, Germany; being expelled from public school in 1938; attending a private Jewish school; witnessing the burning of Berlin’s temple during Kristallnacht; hearing Hitler’s speeches over loudspeakers; leaving Germany in 1939 with her mother to meet her father in Cuba; immigrating to New York in 1940 with her parents; growing up in New York City; moving to Washington, DC for a job with the State Department; getting married and having children; having a sense of confusion about her religious identity; why she chose not to visit any concentration camps; and volunteering at the USHMM.

    Oral history interview with Thomas B. Gardiner

    Oral History

    Thomas Brown Gardiner, born on March 26, 1920 in St. Louis County, Missouri, describes being raised by his widowed mother; life during the Depression; working for a house painter as a teen in St. Louis; getting married in 1940; working for a manufacturer that made small parts for the M1 rifle; being drafted in 1944; training at Camp Robinson in Arkansas; being sent to England in the fall of 1944; going to France; being assigned to the 45th Infantry Division; seeing action in the Vosges Mountains and Alsace-Lorraine; participating in the capture of Schaffenburg; going through Nuremberg and Munich; liberating Dachau as a member of L Company in the 157th Infantry Regiment; guarding the camp while waiting for the military police to arrive; billeting in apartment buildings outside of the camp, where the Nazi officers had lived; typhus in the camp and the high death rate of the survivors; speaking with the survivors and being shown the camp by them; going to Munich then Augsburg for a month; being sent to Le Havre, France; returning to the US; working in military camps in Texas until his release; the effect seeing Dachau had on him; and how he feels stronger in his Christian faith.

    Oral history interview with Roberta Jones

    Oral History

    Roberta Jones, born October 15, 1921 in St. Louis, Missouri, discusses growing up during the Great Depression; enlisting as a nurse in the United States Army; being commissioned as a second lieutenant with the 3rd Army and assigned to the 121st Semi-Mobile Evacuation Hospital; traveling by ship to England and helping in a hospital there; traveling to Luxembourg and then into Germany under dangerous conditions; going to Buchenwald; seeing a crematorium, stacked bodies, and starved prisoners still in uniforms; being offered bread by the prisoners; seeing a lampshade made of human skin in the office of a Nazi official; visiting a smaller liberated concentration camp and watching as American soldiers distributed clothing to naked prisoners; traveling with her hospital to a concentration camp near Linz, Austria (possibly Mauthausen); female nurses being kept outside of the camp fence as men worked inside the camp; meeting newly-liberated English prisoners of war who had been captured at the Battle of Dunkirk; returning to the United States and working at McCormack General Hospital in Pasadena, California; the difficulties of severely disfigured patients integrating into the community in Pasadena; marrying her husband; working at Camp Swift in Texas and Camp Polk in Louisiana, and, during the Korean War, in a military hospital in Michigan; encountering Holocaust deniers; and her insistence that her children know everything about her experience so that they can continue to spread the truth about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Christine Cohen

    Oral History

    Christine Cohen, born April 27, 1940 in the Warsaw ghetto, describes living in the ghetto until 1942 when they escaped; using forged papers showing that they were Christian; having one brother, born in 1948; being sent alone to live with a farm family; being helped and protected by an aristocratic woman, who had befriended an old German officer while she worked for the underground resistance; living with a series of families and caretakers; living in Walbrzych, Poland; not knowing she was Jewish until she was 10 years old and not admitting to it until she moved to Israel (seven years later) in 1957; visiting Germany and Poland after the war and going to Auschwitz, all of which was very difficult; wanting to stay in Israel but because of her parents, moving to the United States; the bitterness she still feels about having her entire extended family taken from her; the recurring nightmares and physical ailments that are all tension-related; and her current life in San Antonio, TX, where there are only a few survivors of her mother’s generation.

    Oral history interview with Hugh Jenkins

    Oral History

    Hugh Jenkins, born December 29, 1914 in Lester, England, describes being the youngest of eight siblings, whose father was a Welsh minister; working before World War II with Quakers and being a conscientious objector even before the war; moving to London, England in 1944 to take part in training at a Quaker institute; being sent to Antwerp, Belgium after the training to do relief work; going to Belsen, Germany on April 22, 1944, soon after the camp had been discovered and the horrific scene; the various response processes at the camp; setting up a hospital, known as the “new camp,” maintaining a first aid station, and finding food; eventually being sent to Poland to be in charge of another camp; how even now he has a sense of desolation in how war is used to settle problems; working as the overseas secretary for the British Friends Relief Service until 1948, when he went to Philadelphia, PA to work with the American Friends Service Committee; and being sent to Washington, DC to be the director of the Foreign Student Service Center.

    Oral history interview with Rene Edgar Tressler

    Oral History

    Rene Edgar Tressler, born April 16, 1927 in Strakonice, Czech Republic, describes his childhood in Strakonice; his parents and brother; escaping to Prague, Czech Republic to live with his grandparents; his brother’s selection to be on the Board of Elders at Theresienstadt; how Theresienstadt was used as a showcase for the Red Cross; his deportation to Auschwitz; his camp number; being moved to Birkenau; his movement to Blechhammer camp; his experiences on a death march in February 1945; his arrival at Buchenwald; reuniting with his parents and brother after the liberation; escaping Czechoslovakia in 1956; immigrating to the United States; and authoring several books.

    Oral history interview with Stefan Wohl

    Oral History

    Stefan Wohl, born February 4, 1934 in Vienna, Austria, discusses the Anschluss in 1938; leaving Vienna through Switzerland to Kraków, Poland; traveling with 14 family members in September 1939 to Jaroslav, Zloczow, and Kolomyja; being captured with his father in November 1939 while trying to cross the border; being released and going to Zloczow; being on a transport for six weeks with his mother, sister, and other relatives in July 1940; arriving in the Yakutsk, Siberia labor camp settlement; leaving in May 1941 by train through Moscow to Lvov where they were reunited with their father; the German invasion on June 22, 1941; going with his sister to a farm in Jaroslav; going to Budapest, Hungary via Monkacs, Hungary (Mukacheve, Ukraine) in the fall 1942; changing their name to Wolinski and pretending to be Catholic; going to Leanyfalu in 1943 and staying for a year; the family going to Seged (Szeged), Hungary; being captured and jailed; being released and staying with an uncle in Budapest; his father’s illness; being liberated by Russians in January 1945; going back to Poland in the spring 1945; going to Sweden in the summer 1946; sailing to Brazil in October 1946; attending school and a university in the United States; and being a film producer in Brazil.

    Oral history interview with Yehuda Adam

    Oral History

    Yehuda Adam (né George Strn), born on July 3, 1929 in Budapest, Hungary, discusses being raised in a reform Jewish household; being put into forced labor in Budapest; receiving a Schutzpasse and his family working for Raoul Wallenberg; being liberated by the Soviets in January 15, 1945; going to Palestine in 1949; going to the United States in 1962; and living in both Israel and the US.

    Oral history interview with Arlette de Long

    Oral History

    Arlette de Long, born June 15, 1937 in Brocourt, Somme, France; describes her parents’ medical practice; her early love of the church and uncertainly whether her family was Jewish; villagers’ willingness to maintain friendship with the family because her father was the only physician in the village; having no memory of life before the war; the liberation of France; moving to a suburb of Paris, where she attended Protestant churches rather than synagogue; father’s unwillingness to discuss the Holocaust; her own reluctance to discuss the Holocaust until her sixteen year old daughter insisted that she talk about it; moving to the United States; her work as a psychotherapist for underprivileged children; and her feeling that her story is one of hope, compassion, and gratitude.

    Oral history interview with Eva Adam

    Oral History

    Eva Adam, born September 3, 1932 in Budapest, Hungary, describes her Orthodox Jewish family; her family’s awareness of what was happening to European Jews; their reluctance to leave Hungary; her father and brother’s membership in the Jewish Legion; serving as adjunct personnel to the Hungarian Army; changes in their lives in the late 1930s and early 1940s; her family’s unawareness of concentration camps before 1944; the Arrow Cross Party taking over the Hungarian police; deteriorating conditions for Jews; the murder of Jews at the Danube River; conditions in the ghetto; her post-liberation search for family members; finding that only three of her thirty-six family members survived Auschwitz; leaving Budapest in 1949; living in Israel and then the United States in 1961; her plans to return to Israel in the future; her pride in being a Jew and a Hungarian; the value in caring about others; and her strong work ethic as an explanation of why she was able to survive.

    Oral history interview with Herbert Bitter

    Oral History

    Herbert Jerome Bitter, born August 4, 1919 in New York City, discusses his parents who were Romanian immigrants; growing up in a Jewish neighborhood in Manhattan; becoming more religious during his service in the United Sates Army from 1943 to 1945; his experiences at Ohrdruf in 1945 soon after the Germans evacuated the camp; seeing three U.S. generals, Eisenhower, Bradley, and Patton, at the camp on April 5, 1945; the generals’ return visit on April 12, 1945 with photographers; how the freed inmates at Ohrdruf were eager to tell their stories to the American liberators; the effect of witnessing the horrors of the Holocaust had on his Jewish identity; and his reluctance to talk about his experiences during the war, especially to children.

    Oral history interview with Rachel Goldfarb

    Oral History

    Rachel Goldfarb, born December 2, 1930 in Poland (now Dokshytsy, Belarus), discusses her life following her liberation by the Russians and her time living in the forests near Bialystok, Poland with her mother; working and living on Russian trains; traveling to Prussia to find shelter provided by various Jewish organizations and the Red Cross; traveling to Italy’s southern coast; attempting to board a ship to Palestine but being blockaded by British authorities; eventually getting to New York City in November 1947 after two and a half years in Italy; visiting Washington, DC after graduation from high school; taking a job with the District Court; attending George Washington University at night; meeting her husband, also a Holocaust survivor, and marrying in 1952; raising two children, both of whom are architects; finally visiting Israel; her good life in the United States; and her advice about valuing what you have in life.

    Oral history interview with Tania Rozmaryn

    Oral History

    Tania Rozmaryn, born on June 16, 1928 in Vilnius, Poland (present day Lithuania), discusses her family as strong Zionists; the changes that took place after the German occupation; family’s escape towards the eastern Russian border; working in the house of an SS officer and being offered guidance on survival; frightening years in the Kovno ghetto; going into hiding until 1944 when the ghetto was liquidated; her deportation with her mother to Stutthof; her mother’s struggles and strategies, trying to make her look less like a child so that she would be chosen for work; being sent to various work camps until March 1945 when they were liberated by the Russians and taken to Central Poland to a displaced persons camp; being sent to Germany with false documents to a kibbutz in Munich; going to the American Zone and teaching at a school in Bergen-Belsen in 1947; getting married in 1949; immigrating to the United States in 1950; graduating summa cum laude from the Teacher’s Institute and receiving an M.A. from Queens College in 1960; moving to Maryland in 1990 where she received an M.S. in Marriage and Family Counseling; nightmares about her Holocaust experiences; and her feelings about her Jewish faith.

    Oral history interview with Frank Ephraim

    Oral History

    Franz Gunter Ephraim, born February 19, 1931 in the Schöneberg district of Berlin, Germany, describes his family and being raised Jewish but not Orthodox; living an integrated life in the community until 1937 and his participation in the 1936 Olympics events; how Kristallnacht was the impetus for his family immigrating to the Philippines; attending a Hebrew school in Manila before the attack on Pearl Harbor and the Japanese invasion of the Philippines; the politics in Manila; experiencing an open Jewish life; their favorite playing areas, holidays, their several living spaces, and the daily routine in Manila; the attack on Pearl Harbor and his memories of the alarms, airplanes, gas masks, and lack of school for about a year; how after the US declared war there were more air raids and an exodus from the Philippines began; how the US was closed to Jews who still had family in Germany and Europe and his family could not go to the US; the Japanese invasion of the Philippines; the many wartime restrictions, including food shortages, looting, changes in currency, and a new governmental organization; how 1944 was the year when things were really deteriorated and the people were starving; the daily air raids from B24 bombers; the Japanese systematically burning down the city of Manila; how February 1945 brought total chaos and there was no food for several weeks; the liberation of Manila by US forces; leaving the Philippines on November 19, 1946; arriving in San Francisco, CA where relatives were waiting for them, along with HIAF; the closeness of the Manila Jewish community in San Francisco; attending UC Berkeley until the Korean War when he was drafted into the Army and sent to Europe as an interpreter; becoming a US citizen in 1952; his philosophy that the importance of Jews as a nation is far more important than Jews as a religion and that self-reliance is the most important quality to have; graduating from UC Berkeley in 1957; and working for a naval architect specializing in submarines, United Airlines, and the Maritime Administration in Washington, DC.

    Oral history interview with Peter Phillips

    Oral History

    Ernst Pieter Philipps, born December 5, 1931 in Essen, Germany, describes his twin brothers, who were three years younger; moving to Prague, Czech Republic in 1936 because of his father’s position with his company; life in Prague, which was normal until the Germans occupied Prague beginning April 1939; moving to Genoa, Italy and spending six months there; relocating by an Italian steamer to Quito, Ecuador, where living conditions were rather primitive and where at their second address they experienced antisemitism for the first time; spending two years in Ecuador; relocating to New York City, NY, where the instances of antisemitism directed at him were violent and ugly; his parents moving back to Rotterdam by 1950 while he remained behind in the house his parents had bought in Queens; attending City College of New York for five years and in 1955 joining the US Army and being sent to Germany where, among other duties, he worked as a teacher and Boy Scout leader for American and German boys; after leaving the Army, working first for the New York Times, a newspaper in Danbury, CT, and Business Week magazine; going to Washington, DC to work for McGraw Hill for 20 years; his experiences as a volunteer at the USHMM; and how he believes his experiences as a Jew have affected his outlook.

    Oral history interview with Joseph Ichiuji

    Oral History

    Joseph Ichiuji describes his parents as having immigrated to the US in the early 1900s; his father being a truck farmer and then owning a shoe repair business; working in a fish cannery and living in Fresno, CA until Executive Order 9066, which required that all Japanese Americans be evacuated to internment camps; being sent by train and truck to Flagstaff, Arizona, where they were assigned to barracks number three of the internment camp at Poston, AZ; conditions at the camp, which was run like an army installation with strict regimentation; volunteering for the 442 Combat Team, formed in 1943 and consisting solely of Japanese American soldiers who had families living in internment camps; fighting in Italy at the front lines north of Rome; liberating Livorno, Italy; helping liberate a subcamp of Dachau; conditions of prisoners still alive at the camp; helping two Lithuanian prisoners reconnect with important people in their lives; going home in December 1945 to find his parents released from the internment camp; helping his father with his business until May 1946 when he went to Washington, DC, where he worked in government service for 37 years; and the reunion of Japanese American soldiers in Los Angeles, CA, which a few of the survivors of Dachau attended.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Horowitz

    Oral History

    Ruth Horowitz (née Salzburg), born March 23, 1930 in Hamburg, Germany, describes her Polish parents Isaac Salzberg and Rose R. Kleinert and her sister; life in Hamburg, where they lived until November 1938; leaving Hamburg two days before Kristallnacht; how Hamburg was very open to Jews until Hitler’s regime, though she experienced many instances of antisemitism; being fascinated with the 1936 Olympics; how her father’s efforts to leave Germany began in 1936 and finally succeeded when he dramatically threatened to commit suicide at the US Consul if the visas were not granted; how crossing the Atlantic was very difficult, with cold and seasickness, but they arrived and went to Detroit, MI for a short while, then to New York City, NY, and finally to Washington, DC; learning to speak English by going to lots of movies; her father’s death at age 54; her mother’s transformation from being a housewife to running her husband’s jewelry business after he died; the wartime antisemitism, the problem of quotas, the Nuremburg trials, and the State of Israel; getting married in 1950; traveling to Germany in 1995; and her views on present day Germany.

    Oral history interview with Hermann Kosak

    Oral History

    Hermann Kosak, born May 2, 1924 in Vienna, Austria, describes his younger sister, Margaret; how antisemitism was pervasive and being involved in instances of physical violence as early as kindergarten; the growth of the Nazi movement in Austria; the Anschluss in March 1938; seeing Hitler arriving in Vienna in his car; how quickly the Jews were affected by the Nazi’s changes; Kristallnacht and being arrested the next morning; trying to get out of Vienna at age 14 and finally getting to Brussels, Belgium with his mother; the Germans attack on Belgium; how enrolling in art school after the invasion was the most important thing he did; learning survival, watchfulness, and self-reliance at age 16; beginning a diary on May 9, 1940, describing daily life, and keeping the diary until three weeks before liberation; how out of 50 family members, 43 were killed in camps; finally getting visas for him and his sister in November 1947 by forcing his way into the US Embassy and leaving for the United States; arriving in New York City, NY; being a painting instructor; being drafted, released to Reserves, working for a while, and being called back for the Korean War; being married and eventually getting a job with Boeing as an illustrator; and his views on the effects of the Holocaust on humanity.

    Oral history interview with Dolly Bestandig

    Oral History

    Dolly Bestandig (née Hirsch), born July 24, 1939 in Vilna (Vilnius), Lithuania, discusses her family, which had been in Lithuania for 11 generations; her father, who was a mathematical engineer, and her mother, who was a concert pianist; how her parents were both very religious and wealthy; being sent to the Vilna ghetto, the hardship of which marked the beginning of her mother’s psychological changes; the presence of 90 members of her mother’s family in the ghetto; how at age five, after living in the Minsk ghetto, she and her mother were sent to Auschwitz, where her mother managed to save her life by hiding her in a garbage can during the day while her mother worked; being moved to Bergen-Belsen with her mother and father after four months, where she was again hidden in a garbage can every day until liberation on April 15, 1945 by English soldiers; being sent to Sweden for medical care; being hospitalized in Gothenburg and then in Stockholm, where surgery on her palate was performed; leaving Sweden in 1947 and going to New York, where an uncle met her family; going to Mexico City, where two uncles were waiting; how her mother’s psychological state was deteriorating and she died in 1958; having flashbacks to her life in the camps; going to the Margaret Sanger Institute in New York City in 1967, where she received counseling help and tuberculosis was found throughout her body; recovering and adopting two children; being the Sub-Director of Hebrew instruction at the Yeshiva in Mexico City; and her feelings about her survival.

    Oral history interview with Goldie Gendelman

    Oral History

    Goldie Gendelman, born November 17, 1933 in Lechowichi (possibly Lyakhavichy, Belarus), Poland near Baranowichi (possibly Baranovichi, Belarus), discusses her parents, Chaim and Chana Wolochiwianski; growing up in an extremely Orthodox family; being raised to speak Polish and Yiddish; her family’s attempt to immigrate to the United States; how she and her family made it to Cuba and stayed there for 11 years; living in Regla, Cuba; her struggles to communicate in Spanish; being run over by a bus in Cuba; how she and her family finally were able to immigrate to the United States in 1948; her paternal uncle in the United States who assisted with the immigration process; her experience with antisemitism in Poland and Cuba; graduating from high school in the United States; volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum; and her feelings about leaving Poland, living in Cuba, and starting a new life in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Rhoda Kuflik

    Oral History

    Rhoda Kuflik (née Ruzenka Husen), born in October 1937 in Kitev, Poland (now Kuty, Ukraine), describes living in the Kuty ghetto; escaping to Romania and hiding there; being liberated by the Soviets; and immigrating to the United States in 1948.

    Oral history interview with William Hess

    Oral History

    William Hess was born William Verna on August 8, 1921 in Stuttgart, Germany. He was an only child and lived a pleasant life there. Despite the Nuremberg laws, he was permitted to continue his schooling as his father served during World War I. Nevertheless, they lost the service of their maid. William experienced little anti-Semitism in Germany but knew that Hitler made anti-Semitic speeches and had newspaper articles written against the Jews. His father's business suffered little from the boycotting but he sold it in 1938. Anti-Semitism was more severe in the outlying towns than in Stuttgart. William studied English for two years before immigrating to Danville, Illinois with his uncle's assistance in 1937. He had difficulty adjusting to the US so had an English tutor. Additionally, he had difficulty living on his wages of $12.50 as $9 went toward room and board and he also had to cover tutoring and transportation expenses. Kristallnacht and his father's internment in Dachau influenced his parents to leave Germany in 1939 for Danville.

    Oral history interview with Jutta Levy

    Oral History

    Jutta Levy, born in 1926 in Hamburg, Germany, describes growing up in a pleasant upper middle class family in a large Jewish community; listening to Hitler’s speeches on the radio and seeing him on a school field trip; witnessing Nazi book burning; learning of the death of Hindenburg; drastic changes in Germany after 1933; living in fear as children were taken from school and acquaintances disappeared; father’s dramatic pleading for visas to leave Germany; obtaining passage on the last train from Hamburg on November 6, 1938; traveling to Paris, France and then to Cherbourg, France, from which her family sailed to New York on the Queen Mary; arriving on November 11, 1938; learning about life in concentration camps from family members who survived the Holocaust; and her return to Hamburg and visit to Bergen-Belsen as an adult.

    Oral history interview with Wolfgang Mueller

    Oral History

    Wolfgang Mueller, born in Hanover, Germany on March 10, 1919, discusses his father’s role as a leader in the Jewish community and being head of B’nai B’rith; being aware of the Nazis at an early stage and seeing posters on kiosks denouncing Jews; refusing to say “Heil Hitler” in school and being advised by the principal to leave the country; going to London, England the summer after his Bar Mitzvah (1932); attending Ewell School and going back to Germany on vacations, pretending he was English; attending Cranbrook School with funding from a relative, Max Nordhaus, in the United States; receiving an affidavit from Nordhaus and getting a visa to the US; arriving in the US July 26, 1936 and moving to New Mexico; his mother and sister emigrating; hearing about Kristallnacht; being drafted in September 1941 and being sent to Florida; being in the Signal Corps; applying to officer’s candidate school and being in a group that called themselves the fighting 614s; being made into an MP after his superiors found out he was from Germany; being stationed in Tampa, FL and Jacksonville, FL; getting his American citizenship; volunteering to go overseas; being stationed in England as a technical supply sergeant and a liaison with the RAF; working after V-E Day in the Air Technical Intelligence Office; interrogating prisoners in Czechoslovakia and Austria and engineers at Zeiss works; being in Nordhausen for an hour; translating V-2 documents; being discharged on January 11, 1947; getting married; working in the meat business, real estate, and as a wholesale fish company; being proud to be Jewish; and his dedication to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Klari Rudnai

    Oral History

    Klari Rudnai (née Takacs), born May 19, 1930 in Budapest, Hungary, describes her well-to-do family that was not at all religious; her older sister; her father, who was her hero, and her strict mother; how their cook was instrumental in saving their lives by getting counterfeit papers with non-Jewish names for them and by bringing them food as they hid in a one-room apartment in 1944; moving to a nice hotel and having to go to the hotel’s underground bunkers during all the bombing for almost nine months; her father’s seven siblings, who were all sent to Auschwitz; going back to the hotel, the Vadasqur, until it too was bombed; moving to a new villa in 1946; how when she was 19 years she was picked up by Russian soldiers in a jeep and had to fight her way out of an attack by them and was saved by American soldiers who took her to the hospital for a few days; marrying an American soldier and wanting to go to the United States; finishing high school; how the solitary military life and moving a lot to odd places didn’t suit her; divorcing her husband and moving back to Washington, DC; getting married in 1960 to a Jewish doctor, who had been in many concentration camps and was instrumental in getting her interested in her Jewish religion; volunteering at the USHMM in the Archives and Volunteer Services; enjoying all parts of talking to people and the volunteers in her job; and reading a lot of books and newspapers about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Jill Pauly

    Oral History

    Jill Pauly, born May 1, 1933 in Cologne, Germany, describes her large, very well-to-do country family; the efforts of her grandmother and uncle to get money to Holland and make arrangements for the family to get to Kenya, where they bought two cattle farms that eventually were very successful; wanting a more orthodox Jewish life after the war; moving to New York City then moving to Vineland, NJ; her family buying a chicken farm, which was destroyed by a hurricane in 1952; the death of her father when he was 66 years old; her mother being her guiding light in terms of religious practice; attending the Pierce School of Business in Philadelphia, PA; working for the Quakers and then for a synagogue; getting her real estate license at the University of Maryland; her two adopted children; retiring in December 1993 from real estate; volunteering at the USHMM in Visitors’ Services and in the Office of Survivor Relations; having very strong feelings about people having access to the Museum; and some of the artifacts that she’s donated to the Museum.

    Oral history interview with Jack Reuben

    Oral History

    Jack Ruben was born Yaakov Ruben on December 8, 1921 in Cincinnati, Ohio and after six months the family moved to LA. He was the only child to Joseph and Sarah Basha Ruben who came from Russia and were not religious. His mother was a garment worker and his father sold fruits and vegetables in a horse and cart in the local area. Due to an eye condition, Jack went to a health camp for a year. Jack's father left the family in 1927 and since lost track of him. Jack was placed in foster homes until the 11th grade and would visit his mother on the weekends. He graduated from high school and worked his way through UCLA by working part-time. In summer of '43 Jack volunteered for the Air Corps and was sent to Pomona College for nine months to study meteorology. He was not picked to be a meteorology officer so joined the infantry and was selected to be a coding clerk. He went to several camps and was shipped to Le Havre. His division had little information of the overall war and no details of concentration camps. From there he was part of the effort to form a bridge over the Moselle and next in a major assault at the Rhine River. Jack was in the Division furthest east in Germany which took many German prisoners as they quickly drove east. His company going east and meeting a surrendering German battalion who were permitted to march on their own. His company formed perimeters around villages and often stayed overnight in a civilian's home. They went through a rural area and saw dead prisoners and dead horses along the road without understanding the situation. They reached Ohrdruf Concentration Camp and saw a few emaciated prisoners leaving and many dead bodies piled up or laying on the ground. Jack did not realize it was a concentration camp at the time or that others existed until later when he returned to the US. The Army newspaper did not publish such information. From there, they went to the Czech border for 3 months which they guarded until VE Day. Then Jack was relocated to a relocation camp near Paris until Christmas '45 when he was shipped home and arrived in NY on New Year's Day '46. He was discharged and married a second time as his first wife was killed in an auto accident. Subsequently, he received a BA in economics, MA in family counseling and PhD in psychology and has practiced 10 years in the field. He has four children. Jack still does not understand how the crimes in the concentration camps could have been performed by fellow human beings.

    Oral history interview with David Bayer

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Tilda Finzi Cohen

    Oral History

    Tilda Finzi Cohen (née Mazel Tov “Tilda” Finzi) born in Split, Yugoslavia on July 11, 1933, discusses Germans passing through their city in early 1941; her father getting called into the army and returning after one month; the Italians occupying Split, closing businesses and setting a curfew; not being permitted to go to school and the formation of community Jewish schools in different locations around city; her uncle being imprisoned and bringing him food; the Italian capitulation in September 1943; her family joining other people fleeing to partisans in the mountains; going with her mother to Brac Island, to Vis Island; sailing to Bari two days before Yom Kippur; living in a camp then a private house; the Germans dropping gas bombs on ships on December 2, 1943; her family moving to a village near Bari and attending school; attending a Seder arranged by the Jewish Brigade in Bitonto, Italy in the spring of 1944; how after the war their relatives told them of the camps and atrocities and advised them not to return to Split; her family moving to Milan, Italy in 1948; her family immigrating to the United States in 1950; finishing high school and attending college; getting married; and feeling that she is not a part of any country and that she lost her childhood.

    Oral history interview with Zwi Golombek

    Oral History

    Zwi Golombek, born in Warsaw, Poland on September 15, 1934, describes his father’s large construction business; the formation of the Warsaw ghetto and his family moving into one room on Nowolipki Street; his father’s ability to exit and enter the ghetto because he possessed building permits; being aware of danger and seeing beatings; his father striking a German guard in early 1942 and being taken to a ghetto prison then Treblinka; his Uncle Mietek placing him with the Abramzuc family in Jozefow, Poland and his mother and sister disappearing from the ghetto two weeks later; staying hidden for three years and his uncle visiting often and playing the family to hide him; being called Henyek; his uncle placing him in a kibbutzim in Poland and Germany after the war; going to Israel on October 6, 1948; working in Tel Aviv and joining the Israeli army in 1952; fighting war in 1956, 1967, 1973, and 1982; getting married; and his two sons.

    Oral history interview with Samuel B. Hagner

    Oral History

    Samuel Hagner, born November 1, 1925 in Philadelphia, PA, discusses his Quaker parents; becoming a Quaker member at age 14; going to a Quaker work camp; being told about antisemitic events in Europe by a Jewish friend named Doris Weil and not believing her; his brother being a conscientious objector and working in a forestry camp during war; attending Oberlin College; being inducted into the army in January 1944 as a 1-A-O; training as a medical corpsman; sailing to Europe in December 1944; joining 7th Army in Germany and moving as the front moved; being made an armed guard at a billet even though he refused to carry a gun; going by truck to help liberate Dachau; the overwhelming experiences of seeing Dachau and feeling anger towards the SS guards; staying in the camp for one week; wavering about being a conscientious objector and writing to Doris to tell her she was right; going to a German hospital with nuns; going to France and the war ending before he was deployed to the Philippines; becoming a scrub nurse during plastic surgery on war victims in Indiana; being discharged and returning to college in the fall of 1946; practicing psychiatry for adults; living with his Dachau experience but not being at peace with it; and his continued abhorrence of war.

    Oral history interview with Werner E. Michel

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Guta Jacobson

    Oral History

    Guta Jacobson (née Rogowitz), born on April 23, 1925 in Łódź, Poland, discusses her early life in Łódź; relations between Jews and Christians; her activity in a Zionist organization; various holiday celebrations; the German invasion of Poland and the implementation of Nazi race laws; food shortages; the establishment of the Łódź ghetto; her family’s indecision on whether or not to flee; life in the ghetto; losing her faith in God after seeing her parents give up their children; her father’s disappearance; the typhus epidemic; hearing rumors of Chelmno and Auschwitz; hiding from the liquidation of the ghetto and their eventual deportation to Auschwitz in August of 1944; her immediate understanding of what was happening in the camp; Dr. Josef Mengele taking her mother away; being transported to a camp in Birnbäumel, Germany (now Gruszeczka, Poland), to work digging anti-tank trenches; the differing conditions of various camps; hiding in the woods during a death march; her return to a liberated Łódź; marrying her husband; her reunion with her sister who had been recuperating in Sweden after the liberation of Bergen-Belsen; immigrating to the United States; the birth of her children; the death of her husband; her avoidance of discussing her experiences with her children when they were young; her motivations for sharing her story now; and her hopes that the world will never forget.

    Oral history interview with Helen Luksenburg

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with William Luksenburg

    Oral History

    William Luksenburg describes going on a death march from Regensburg, Germany to Lebenau, Germany; a German farmer picking him up from the road, where he fell; being brought by the farmer to American troops stationed in the nearby town of Laufen, where he was treated for malnutrition; his cousin coming to the same camp a few months later; returning with his cousin to Bayreuth, Germany, where there were other family members; reuniting in Prague with his future wife, Helen, whom he met in the Blechhammer work camp; getting married in 1947; receiving money and support from the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Agency; attending a technical school organized by the Organization for Rehabilitation through Training; immigrating to the United States in September 1949 with Helen; and becoming a mechanic and starting his own business. [Note: This interview focuses on the interviewee’s post-Holocaust experiences. There is an earlier interview focusing on the interviewee’s Holocaust experience. This interview can be accessed by requesting RG-50.030*140.]

    Oral history interview with Rose Weisfeld

    Oral History

    Rose Weisfeld (née Friedman), born on March 28, 1914 in Radom, Poland, discusses her early life and schooling; social integration between Jews and Christians at home and at school; keeping Jewish customs and traditions at home; her religious education; her brothers’ conscription in the Polish army; being badly injured and hospitalized for a year; her family’s forced relocation to the Radom ghetto; her father’s death; the liquidation of the ghetto; doing factory work; being transported to Auschwitz via cattle car; the process of selections; being transported to Ravensbrück in 1944; being liberated by Swedish soldiers and their compassion; weighing 32 pounds at liberation; her hospitalization in Denmark and Sweden; finding work in a factory and regaining her humanity; her marriage in Sweden to another survivor; the birth of her children; finding her brother through the Red Cross after four years; immigrating to the United States to be with her brother; the difficulties of adjusting to life in the US; and the importance of raising her children with Jewish traditions.

    Oral history interview with Ruth E. Greifer

    Oral History

    Ruth Greifer (née Dahl), born May 30, 1922 in Geilenkirchen (near Aachen), Germany, discusses her father, who was a cattle dealer, and her Dutch mother; attending a private Catholic school and experiencing antisemitism but being treated well by the nuns; how the plaque on father’s business was shattered in 1938; moving to Valkenburg, Holland in the spring of 1938; Germans occupying the city on May 10, 1940 and her family hiding in catacombs during the bombing; having to wear the yellow star and obey curfew; her father’s business being taken away; the Germans ordering them to leave in June 1942, but she was allowed to stay because she was sick; her brother and two aunts being taken to Auschwitz; how a Mr. Jansen from the underground arranged for she and her parents to go into hiding; going to a coal miner’s house, while her parents went to another; being thought of as a risk and being relocated to a doctor’s house to be a maid; going into hiding at the Robertson’s house near Treebeek and Hoensbroek with another Jewish woman; getting money from the underground organization; hearing about the June 1944 invasion; going to a house in Treebeek; the heavy bombing in the city and hiding in a potato bin for three days; being liberated September 17, 1944; returning to her parents in Valkenburg; the loss of all of her mother’s Dutch family; sailing to the United states in the spring of 1948; settling with her sister in Pittsburgh, PA; getting married April 8, 1951 and having three daughters; moving to Washington, DC in 1957; and her feelings about Germany.

    Oral history interview with Nesse Godin

    Oral History

    Nesse Godin (née Galperin), born on March 28, 1928 in Siaulai, Lithuania, discusses her life after the war; being liberated by the Russians in Chynowie (known as Chinow in German) near Wejherowo, Poland on March 10, 1945; suffering from typhoid and dysentery and weighing 65 pounds; joining her mother and brother in Feldafing DP camp; going to ORT and UNRRA sponsored classes; getting married to Jack Godin, who had escaped from the Vilna Ghetto and whose family was killed in Ponary; having her first child in Munich, Germany; immigrating to United States in 1950 and settling in Washington, DC; becoming a citizen in 1955 and working as a dressmaker for 26 years; raising her children; sharing her Holocaust experience; working with the UJA, Jewish Community Council and the Anti-Defamation League of B’nai B’rith, and the US Holocaust Memorial Council; working on projects at USHMM, including the “Remember the Children” exhibit, the ID project, and within the education and development departments; and her thoughts on the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Maryla Korn

    Oral History

    Maryla Korn (née Orgel), born on June 10, 1938 in Kraków, Poland, discusses going with her mother first to Wieliczka and then to Bochnia between late 1940 and early 1941; hiding with a peasant family but crying so much that she was returned to her mother; going to a ghetto in Bochnia at the end of 1941; her mother working outside the ghetto in a factory; taking messages outside the ghetto and bringing back food; leaving the ghetto in June 1943 and separating from her mother; carrying diamonds and money, but no luggage and bribing Germans and the Judenrat; traveling by truck to the border then by foot at night; being guided by paid partisans; her grandfather being shot at Bochnia cemetery, her grandmother being taken to Auschwitz, and her uncle being taken to Belzec in the summer of 1942; being by Czech collaborators in Kosice, Slovakia; being released and proceeding to Hungary with help from the Joint; being caught and sent to a prison in Budapest and the Joint getting her out; going to Usod, Hungary in the fall of 1943 and staying there until April 1944 under name of Orglowska; living as a Christian; being treated for gangrene in her leg; the roundup of Hungarian Jews in April 1944; her mother stealing passes and going to Budapest; staying with a Jewish Polish friend and then going to Bucharest, Romania with help from the Joint; almost boarding two different ships in Constanta, Romania going to Palestine, one of which (the Merkur) sank and the other ended up in Cyprus; being liberated by the Russians in the spring of 1945; going to Budapest and staying in a children’s home while her mother went back to Poland to check on family; her mother setting up a business in Vienna, Austria with an uncle; her father returning traumatized from the war; going to Brussels, Belgium in the winter of 1946-1947; going to Israel in 1951; living in both Israel and Brussels until immigrating to the United states in May 1961; getting married in June 1961 to David Korn, who is also a survivor; visiting her parents in Germany; and her work translating for USHMM.

    Oral history interview with Michel Margosis

    Oral History

    Michel Margosis, born in Brussels, Belgium on September 2, 1928, discusses immigrating to the United States in 1943; being taken in by father’s cousin in Brooklyn, then to foster home; his parents coming to the US in 1946; graduating from high school in 1947; graduating with honors from Brooklyn College in 1951; enlisting in the army and being sent to Germany as an interpreter but requesting to be transferred; becoming a medic near Verdun; feeling very American, but did not speak about his childhood with other soldiers; his feeling about Germany; working at USHMM with the Speakers Bureau and translating materials; speaking about his past; and being featured in the book “The Triumphant Spirit” by Nicholas del Calzo.

    Oral history interview with Lena Jurand

    Oral History

    Lena Jurand (Salzberg), born in Przemysl, Poland on September 13, 1917, discusses being an only child, educated in a Catholic school then at a music conservatory; meeting her husband Julian Jurand in 1931 and getting married in May 1940; living in the Russian part of town; her father being chosen for the Judenrat when the Germans took over; Jews having to give up jewelry and wear a star; the ghetto being formed in July 1942; moving with parents and in-laws from Lvov; working in a factory disinfecting uniforms; her father being taken away and how she went to the Gestapo headquarters and saved him from deportation to Auschwitz; meeting a Polish woman in the factory who offered to hide her and Julian; hiding for 22 months in room off of kitchen in a woman’s apartment; being liberated by Russians in August 1944; living in an apartment with her husband and cousins; living in Munich, Germany with UNRRA staff of the Neu Freimann DP Camp; teaching music to child survivors in camp for one year; moving to Genoa, Italy, where Julian practiced medicine; visiting her uncle for six months in New York, NY; going to the United States in 1951; living in New Jersey, where Julian worked in state hospital as a psychiatrist; and Julian becoming the clinical director at St. Elizabeth’s in Washington, D.C.

    Oral history interview with Wallace Witkowski

    Oral History

    Wallace A. Witkowski, born January 12, 1928 in Kielce, Poland, discusses his escape from Poland on a ship to Goteborg, Sweden in 1948; going to the United States; how his sister was caught by the communists and imprisoned; his struggle to find his father who had immigrated to the United States earlier; settling in Detroit, Michigan and adjusting to American life; how his mother and sister arrived in the U.S. later; attending high school and then Wayne State University; getting married in 1951; working as a radio disc jockey using the on-air name Jan Alexander; earning a law degree; working in Washington, DC and traveling between the United States and Poland; working for the Federal Trade Commission; living and working in Micronesia; his thoughts on religion and how the Holocaust affected him; his identity as a Catholic; his work as a translator; and his work with the Foreign Claims Settlement Commission.

    Oral history interview with Peter Masters

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Lena Gitter

    Oral History

    Lena Gitter (née Lieba Rosenblatt), born in 1905 in Vienna, Austria, discusses her life after the Holocaust; immigrating to the US in July 1938 with her husband and small daughter; her husband who worked as a physician; feeling guilty for many years about having escaped Vienna before the Holocaust; her long involvement with the Montessori schools both in Vienna and the United States; the Montessori method; working with people in Mississippi under Johnson’s War on Poverty program; the death of her husband in 1974; her plan to donate her collection of early childhood education materials to a library in Vienna; working under several Presidents of the United States.

    Oral history interview with Jacob Wiener

    Oral History

    Jacob Wiener (né Koppel G. Zwienicki), born March 25, 1917 in Bremen, Germany, discusses his experiences in the United States after World War II; the reaction to the war by the American media; his wife’s experience on the Kindertransport; his memories of watching Nazi war crime trials on television; his thoughts on Israel and Palestine; the Eichmann trial; how he was involved with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum from its founding; Holocaust education in American schools; antisemitism in the United States; and how he founded a school for mentally disabled children in the 1950s.

    Oral history interview with Noah Roitman

    Oral History

    Noah Roitman, born in Baranowicze, Poland (Baranavichy, Belarus) on January 10, 1923, discusses his religious upbringing and schooling; being very athletic; receiving warnings from his Christian friends in November 1938; his town being under Soviet rule in 1939; people being deported and his house being burned down; the German invasion on June 27, 1941; the formation of a ghetto on December 12, 1941; wearing the yellow star and working in arms factory; joining the resistance group of Mome Kopelovitz; the first action in the ghetto in March 1942; joining the partisans led by Pougatchov in the forest in August 1942; his activities sabotaging trains and bringing others out of ghetto (saving approximately 80 people); being sent to Pinsk, Belarus in late 1943; joining a group led by Major Igor, attacking trains; being ordered into Russian Army in Slutsk, Belarus in December 1943; fighting Germans and seeing Warsaw destroyed; being wounded by a sniper outside of Berlin, Germany; running a canteen for the Russian Army at the end of the war; returning to Poland; helping Jews get to Czechoslovakia; being captured and jailed, but escaping to Łódź, Poland; meeting his wife; traveling through Germany and France to get to Israel; being detained in Cyprus for 3 to 4 months; having a construction business in Israel; and immigrating to the United States in October 1963.

    Oral history interview with Richard W. Peterson

    Oral History

    Richard W. Peterson, born September 29, 1925 in Iowa, discusses his family’s Danish background; growing up in a Baptist family; first learning about the war in Europe and his family’s concern for Denmark; antisemitism in Iowa; hearing about the attack on Pearl Harbor; his involvement with ROTC and Boy Scouts; attending Drake University; joining the Army Specialized Training Reserve Program (ASTRP); reporting to Fort Crook for the reserve program and then to Camp Dodge in Iowa; being sworn into the U.S. Army; training at Camp Livingston in Louisiana with the 86th Blackhawk division; being assigned to A Company, 342nd Infantry; being sent to Le Havre, France; traveling through France, the Netherlands, and Germany; fighting in a battle in Attendorn, Germany; entering what appeared to be a factory in Attendorn and seeing starving people there; the reaction of his comrades to seeing the prisoners; the liberation of Auschwitz; being sent to the Philippines from September 1945 to March 1946; finishing his degree at the University of Iowa; graduating from law school in 1951; getting married; his father’s appointment to the Iowa Supreme Court; how he was a United States Magistrate Judge; his three children; and how he feels about American current events, politics, and world news.

    Oral history interview with Riane Gruss

    Oral History

    Riane Gruss (née Wohl), born on August 18, 1932 in Vienna, Austria, describes her father, who was a banker in Kraków, Poland and an industrialist in Vienna, and how her parents lived half a year in each place; she and her siblings being raised by a governess in Vienna; being in Kraków on September 1, 1939; going to Jaroslav, where there was bombing, then to Zloczow and to Kolomyja; her father and brother being captured at the border and her brother’s release; returning to Zloczow; being sent to Siberia by the Russians in July 1940; her younger brother getting scarlet fever; arriving in August 1940 near Yakutsk and Aldan and going to a labor camp; conditions in the camp; the hard physical labor for adults; how in April 1941 the NKVD said mothers and children could leave; their New York relatives getting them Bolivian passports; leaving in May and meeting her father in Lvov (L'viv, Ukraine); going to a farm in country for four months after the German invasion on June 22, 1941; her family following her uncle Joseph Stieglitz to Munkacs, Hungary (Mukacheve, Ukraine); getting Polish Christian papers; going to Budapest, Hungary; going to Szeged, Hungary, where her father had to be hospitalized; the children being hidden in the fall of 1944 in a caretaker’s house in Buda, Hungary; escaping when the Russians arrived and reuniting with her parents; going with her family to Mako, Hungary for four weeks then to Vienna; her parents returning to Kraków; going with a smuggler to Brno, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic) and then joining her parents in Kraków; going with her family to Stockholm, Sweden; going to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in October 1946; going to New York, in February 1951; and getting married in December 195 and having two children.

    Oral history interview with Regina Spiegel

    Oral History

    Regina Spiegel, (née Gutman) born May 12, 1926 in Radom, Poland, discusses her post-war experiences starting with her liberation; traveling with 3,000 other female prisoners by train from Elsnig, Germany to Dachau, Germany; how the train stopped on the way to Dachau because the railway line had been bombed; how the train itself was bombed by the Allies while stopped on the tracks; being able to escape during the bombing; traveling with 15 other women by horse and buggy to Poland; sleeping in German homes while traveling to Poland; avoiding large groups of Russian soldiers; promising her mother and her boyfriend that if they were separated during the war, they would meet in Radom, Poland; how she and her friends boarded a train in Poznań, Poland without any money; meeting a man on the train with whom she had been imprisoned in Pionki, Poland; returning to Radom where she was told that returning Jews were being killed; returning to the Radom Ghetto, where many displaced persons were gathering; writing her name on a list of displaced persons in the Radom Ghetto; traveling from Radom to Kozienice to reunite with her boyfriend, Sam; leaving Poland with Sam and traveling by train to Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); traveling with the Joint Distribution Committee from Prague to Pilsen, Czech Republic and then to Germany; staying with Sam in the displaced persons camp Föhrenwald; her marriage to Sam in 1946; moving to Stuttgart, Germany, where she learned to be a seamstress through ORT classes; her involvement with the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York; her religious beliefs and how they changed throughout the war; moving to Washington, DC; how she and Sam learned to speak English; working as a seamstress before giving birth to a daughter in August 1951; her thoughts on the Yugoslavian conflict; her work with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum during its early development; her activity with the Jewish Holocaust Survivors and Friends of Greater Washington; returning with Sam to Auschwitz in 1975; speaking publically about the Holocaust; receiving an award from the United Jewish Appeal; and how she and Sam take groups of 16 to 18 year olds to Poland and Israel through the B'nai B'rith Youth Organization.

    Oral history interview with Charles Stein

    Oral History

    Charles Stein (né Karl Robert Stein), born in Vienna, Austria, on November 28, 1919, describes his childhood; attending medical school at the University of Vienna; immigrating to the United States and arriving on December 18, 1939; his draft into the army on October 7, 1941; discovering that his parents had gone into the Łódź ghetto; training at Camp Ritchie in Maryland; going to Normandy, France with the 9th Infantry Division as the commander of a prisoner-of-war interrogation team; helping to liberate Nordhausen and interrogating its Ukrainian guards; becoming an Army captain and then the chief of the translation section in the Office of Military History at the Pentagon; serving in Korea and Tokyo for five years; marrying an Air Force lieutenant in Tokyo; returning to the US and settling in Washington, DC; working for the Air Force Intelligence and for the State Department until his retirement in 1978; serving as a foreign service officer and being responsible for the resettlement of refugees in Europe; and writing about his experiences during the war.

    Oral history interview with Hannah Kalman

    Oral History

    Hannah Kalman (née Hannah Finer Kalmanowicz), born in 1912 in Opoczno, Poland and describes her family; moving to Łódź, Poland when she was 12 and joining a Zionist organization; meeting her husband in the Zionist organization and getting married in 1937; moving into the Łódź ghetto in 1939; living with her son, sister, and nephew in a small room with bad conditions; being deported with her family on one of the last transports out of the Łódź ghetto; never seeing her son and nephew again after their arrival at Auschwitz; her transport to Waldeslust, Germany, where she did hard labor; going on a death march to Bergen-Belsen; conditions in the camp; being liberated with her sister on April 15, 1945; the death of her sister two months after liberation; traveling around Poland looking for relatives; reuniting with her husband later in Poland; moving to Germany and having a son; immigrating to the United States; settling in Scranton, Pennsylvania; having a daughter; and living in Israel for a short time but ultimately settling in the United States for medical treatment.

    Oral history interview with Morris Rosen

    Oral History

    Morris Rosen, born on November 10, 1922 in Częstochowa, Poland, describes his family; being forced to paint rooms for German troops during the war; his deportation to Theresienstadt; being forced on a death march to Buchenwald; receiving help from the Red Cross after the war; traveling around Poland and Germany trying to find his sister; his time spent in displaced persons camps; his memories of the Nuremberg Trials; immigrating to the United States and settling in New York; the mental stress with which he dealt after the war; attending the international law program at Columbia; moving to Baltimore, Maryland in November, 1949; getting married in 1953; collecting items from the World War Two era; and his reflections on the state of antisemitism in today’s world.

    Oral history interview with Sam Spiegel

    Oral History

    Sam Spiegel, born in Kozienice, Poland on August 23, 1922, describes his family and childhood; being forced into a ghetto; his father’s involvement in the underground movement; working for the Judenrat and getting papers to leave the ghetto and get extra food; his deportation to Auschwitz in 1942; meeting his future wife in the camp; the Ukrainian camp guards; conditions in the camp and how inmates helped each other; going on a death march as the Allies neared Auschwitz; returning home and experiencing antisemitism; spending time in displaced persons camps; working for the United Nations Relief Organization and the Joint Distribution Committee after the war; getting married; immigrating to the United States; and returning to Europe to visit the concentration camps.

    Oral history interview with Fred Gutter

    Oral History

    Fred Gutter, born on December 25, 1926 in Sanok, Poland, describes his family and childhood; his memories of celebrating the Jewish holidays and Sabbath services; attending a high school and experiencing antisemitism; increasing persecution against Jews in the 1930s; moving to Lwów because of the difficulties his family faced; his family’s capture by Russian troops and living under Russian control; being released by the Russians at the end of the war and briefly returning to Sanok; staying in several displaced persons camps; reuniting with his father after the war; receiving aid from the Joint Distribution Committee; spending some time in Palestine and fighting in the 1948 war; immigrating to the United States in 1959; and his feelings about American politics.

    Oral history interview with Henry Greenbaum

    Oral History

    Henry Greenbaum, born on April 1, 1928 in Starachowice, Poland, describes his family and childhood; his memories of his family celebrating the Jewish holidays; being too young to understand the persecution that was happening around him; his family deciding that one of his sisters should immigrate to the United States in 1937; the establishment of a ghetto in Starachowice; his deportation to a labor camp in October 1942; attempting to escape but getting severely wounded and having to stay in the camp; his transfers to Auschwitz and then Flossenbürg; going on a death march from Flossenbürg; his liberation by the U.S. Army on April 25, 1945; spending time in a displaced persons camp after the war until his sister in America could send papers for him and his brother; immigrating to the United States in June 1946; adjusting to life in America and finding a job at a department store; settling in the Washington metro area; and interacting with other Holocaust survivors who live in his community.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Alper

    Oral History

    Ruth Alper, born on February 18, 1932 in Germany, describes her family and childhood; experiencing little antisemitism as a child; her memories of Kristallnacht; receiving an affidavit from family in Detroit, MI in 1939 to immigrate to the United States; arriving in Cuba and staying there until 1941, when she and her family moved to Miami, FL; the small Jewish community in Havana, Cuba; listening to the progress of the war on the radio; experiencing antisemitism in Miami; her recollections of the response of the American Jewish community experiencing the war from abroad; and creating a new life for herself in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Michael Lin

    Oral History

    Michael Lin, born in Riga, Latvia on September 14, 1936, describes his family and childhood; the Jewish community of Riga; the beginning of the war in 1941 and his family being forced to leave their home to settle in Yaroslavl (IAroslavl' ), Russia; catching malaria and developing pneumonia in 1941 but not being able to get medication; moving to another small village in Russia, where he remained until 1944 when his family moved farther east; having to shave his head to avoid getting lice; his father’s draft into the Russian Army; the end of the war and preparing to return to Riga; his experiences with antisemitism in Russia; beginning school after the war in Latvia; his draft into the Russian Army in September 1955; attending school in Moscow after he left the army; immigrating to Israel in 1969 with his wife and children; immigrating to the United States a few years later; and his reflections on sharing his memories of the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Hannah Kalman

    Oral History

    Chana Kalman, born on January 20, 1912 in Opoczno, Poland, describes her family and childhood; her experiences with antisemitism; moving to Łódź, Poland when she was eighteen years old; participating in a Zionist organization with several other young people; working during the day and attending a Hebrew school at night; getting married shortly before the death of her father in 1937; giving birth to a child on January 25, 1939; moving into the Łódź ghetto in 1940 and struggling to find food for herself and her son; the liquidation of the ghetto in August 1944; her deportation to Auschwitz with her sister and being forced around by SS men; her transfer to Bergen-Belsen shortly before her liberation; finding out about the death of her husband and child; getting remarried in 1946 and having a son and a daughter; remaining in Germany as a displaced person until 1950, when she immigrated to the United States; settling in Scranton, Pennsylvania; spending some time in Israel once her children had grown up; and her reflections on life in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Dorrit L. Ostberg

    Oral History

    Dorrit Liane Ostberg, born in Vienna, Austria on September 29, 1929, describes her family; her father fleeing to Paris, France after the Germans entered Austria; escaping to Paris with her mother and sister but discovering that her father had fled to Yugoslavia; arriving in Yugoslavia several months later; obtaining Yugoslavian citizenship and living in Slavonski-Brod and Zagreb (both in present day Croatia); fleeing to Crikvenica, Croatia after Croatian guards arrested her father; her family’s deportation to an Italian internment camp on Rab; attending school until she contracted hepatitis and had to stay in a hospital for four months; her liberation in September 1943; her family fleeing on a fishing boat to Italy and living openly as Jews in Bari, Italy with two Italian women; immigrating to Fort Ontario in Oswego, New York in July 1944; attending junior high school; moving to New York City after the war ended; attending university and becoming a math teacher; getting married three times and having one son; and her religious feelings.

    Oral history interview with Alice Eberstarkova Masters

    Oral History

    Alice Eberstarkova Masters, born in Trstená, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia) in 1925, describes her youth; her experiences with antisemitism before the war; immigrating to England in 1939 on a Kindertransport; working as a secretary for the Czech government-in-exile in London during the war; following the BBC broadcasts of the war’s progress; the end of the war and discovering that her parents had died in Auschwitz; her reflections on the Nuremberg Trials; participating in Zionist and Jewish organizations while in England; immigrating to the United States in March 1948; working for the International Monetary Fund; losing her religious faith; getting married and starting a family after the war; and telling her children and grandchildren about her experiences during the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Martin Weiss

    Oral History

    Martin Weiss, born in Polana, Czechoslovakia (possibly present day Veľká Poľana, Slovakia) on January 28, 1929, describes his post-war experiences living in Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic with his sister; receiving papers to immigrate to the United States in 1946 and living with a distant cousin; working at a butcher’s shop, so he could support himself; opening his own meat store later in life; eventually deciding to volunteer at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum; and not participating much in his faith anymore.

    Oral history interview with Leonard Gordon

    Oral History

    Leonard Gordon, born on June 8, 1925 in Tilsit, Germany (Sovetsk, Russia), describes growing up in Siauliai, Lithuania; his family; attending Jewish grade school and high school; the German invasion of Lithuania in 1941; trying to escape to Russia but instead having to return home and go into the Siauliai ghetto; his family’s transport to Stutthof in 1944; being transported with his father and brother to Dachau, where they worked at Mühldorf; building the German underground airport, Messerschmitt; his father’s proposal that the three of them commit suicide; hearing about the invasion of Normandy; the liberation of Dachau in May 1945; staying in a displaced persons camp in Feldafing and planning to move to Israel; traveling to Italy and studying to be a radio technician; immigrating to the United States; becoming an electrical engineer and serving in the United States Navy; and rediscovering religion after the death of his wife.

    Oral history interview with Fritz Gluckstein

    Oral History

    Fritz Gluckstein, born January 24, 1927 in Berlin, Germany, describes the end of the war in Berlin; the food and housing shortages; cleaning up rubble from bombings with his father; the difficulties of re-starting his education after the war; immigrating to the United States in January 1948 and settling in the Minneapolis and St. Paul area; becoming a veterinarian; and volunteering for the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Brigitte Freidin

    Oral History

    Brigitte Freidin, born in Augsburg, Germany on June 3, 1930, describes her family and childhood; her memories of Kristallnacht; her father being arrested and sent to Dachau after Kristallnacht; her father’s release and her parents’ decision to try to immigrate to the United States; traveling to England while waiting for permission to go to the U.S.; immigrating to the U.S. in 1941; staying with relatives who were taking in refugees in Washington, DC; losing touch with much of her family left in Europe and then discovering that many had died; participating in American student clubs during the war; working as a salesgirl when she was fourteen years old to help support her family; getting married and starting a family; and speaking about her personal experiences during the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Eva Kristine Belfoure

    Oral History

    Eva Kristine Belfoure, born on October 1, 1924 in Kraków, Poland, describes growing up in a Roman Catholic home; having many Orthodox Jewish friends in her childhood; teaching Catholic prayers to an elderly Jewish lady who was hidden in her home during the war; exchanging goods and delivering messages in the ghetto; being arrested in January 1942 and being taken to the Nordhausen concentration camp, where she worked in various labor camps; her deportation to the Rathsfeld firm, where she worked as a kitchen aide and remained until liberation; doing translation work in a field hospital in Nordhausen after the war; going to the displaced persons camps in Dora, Heilbronn, and Darmstadt; attending the university in Frankfurt after receiving aid from the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Agency; immigrating to the United States in June 1950 and marrying a sailor in 1953; teaching languages in Baltimore County for twenty-five years; and translating for the Red Cross and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with George Hill Leonard

    Oral History

    George Leonard, a concentration camp liberator born on December 24, 1921 in Malden, Massachusetts, describes his childhood; his training in Alabama and California before he and his unit went to England; becoming the company runner, staying close to the captain and lieutenants; translating codes and delivering messages while at war; his memories of the fights at the Siegfried Line; receiving the Bronze Star after being wounded; traveling through parts of Germany along the Czech border and getting ordered to the Mauthausen concentration camp in Austria; helping to give the victims a proper burial; staying in the Mauthausen area for about six weeks until he went to Spital am Pyhrn, Austria in late July; leaving for America on December 15, 1945; getting married; and teaching at Harvard University after the war.

    Oral history interview with Kurt Roberg

    Oral History

    Kurt Roberg, born May 16, 1924 in Celle, Germany, discusses his childhood; attending a German school where he was the only Jewish student; his father Victor Roberg’s profession as a merchant for the firm Gebrüder Freidberg; his family’s religious practices; Kristallnacht; antisemitism in his hometown; details of German politics of the time; the boycott of Jewish businesses on April 1, 1933; how a retired teacher, Hal Lotheim, taught local Jewish students; the Hitler Youth in his community; his Bar Mitzvah; how his brother, Harry, immigrated in 1936 to Holland, the Netherlands to live with their maternal uncle, Wilhelm Marx; how his father had to close his business in 1937; his mother’s 1938 trip to Hamburg, Germany to visit the American consulate; how his father was sent to Oranienburg after Kristallnacht; his father’s release and experiences in Oranienburg; his journey to Holland to join his brother and uncle; how his mother and father used American visa applications to travel to Holland; how his mother, father, and brother immigrated to the United States from Holland in 1940; German attacks on Rotterdam, the Netherlands; being interned in Holland for his status as a German citizen; being sent out of Rotterdam to Gouda, the Netherlands; how a woman organized transports of children from Holland and Belgium to reunite with their parents; receiving his American visa in January 1941; leaving Holland in March 1941; traveling from Germany to Spain and then to Lisbon, Portugal by train with other children; traveling by American ship from Lisbon, Portugal to the United States; being held on Ellis Island for a month because of visa complications; living in New Rochelle, New York with his family; learning about Pearl Harbor; how he and his brother joined the army in 1943; experiencing antisemitism in the army; his experience in the Pacific during World War II; and his life with his family after the war.

    Oral history interview with Alfred Schnog

    Oral History

    Alfred Schnog, born January 25, 1931, discusses his childhood in Cologne, Germany; growing up in a relatively secular Jewish family on Universität Straße; his relationship with his grandparents who lived in Deutz, a suburb of Cologne; seeing Nazi parades and looking on with interest but feeling unwelcome; being harassed by Nazi Youth on his way home from school with his twin brother, Norbert; seeing signs in businesses barring Jews and learning that few business owners enforced this policy; spending Passover in a Catholic hospital after being injured in a car wreck and being provided with kosher food by the nuns; watching his father throw pieces of a gun into the Rhine when guns were banned for Jews; his father’s metal trade business being taken over by non-Jews; hearing about concentration camps but believing they would primarily affect immigrants (particularly Poles) and seeing Polish children taken out of his classes by the Gestapo; his parents’ search for a way out of Germany and eventual escape to the Netherlands in the summer of 1938; his family’s return to Germany in November 1938 to retrieve belongings; witnessing Kristallnacht from an upper-floor window of the Dome Hotel; his family being taken to jail as they tried to return to the Netherlands after the German borders were sealed, but eventually being allowed to go; attending Jewish school in Amsterdam and learning Dutch; applying to move to the United States and first going by plane to England in Jan 1940, then by ship (the Britannic) from Liverpool to New York City in April 1940; attending school in the United States; speaking Dutch with his brother because they did not want to be associated with Germans; experiencing discrimination in school when his third grade teacher admonished him and his brother for wearing an American flag pin on a holiday when they were not born in America; having his Bar Mitzvah and attending Hebrew school at the synagogue in Regal Park; experiencing antisemitism as his family vacationed in the Adirondacks, finding many signs restricting Jews from staying at hotels; learning that his grandparents had been killed in a concentration camp; graduating from Forest Hill High School and then receiving a degree in engineering from Cornell; going to Korea in 1954 to serve two years in the U.S. Army; starting and running a company; learning that a pair of his father’s cufflinks were given to his father in recognition of his Bar Mitzvah by Claus von Stauffenberg, a German officer who later led an assassination attempt against Hitler; his reflections on the way those who did not experience the Holocaust and WWII view it; his children’s knowledge of his and his parents’ experiences and how it has affected them; and his thoughts on Israel.

    Oral history interview with Fred Taucher

    Oral History

    Fred Taucher, born on January 29, 1933 in Berlin, Germany, describes his half-brother’s suicide to avoid Nazi concentration camps; the destruction of his father’s store during Kristallnacht; moving to a ghetto in 1938; his father’s inability to leave Germany despite his United State’s citizenship; his family’s relationship with a high ranking Nazi member; his father going into slave labor and then being sent to Auschwitz in 1943; his family’s escape from arrest; living in subway stations to avoid Allied bombings; getting arrested, tortured, and sent to Dachau in April 1945; escaping from the Nazis with some Russian soldiers; his mother’s death during a crossfire between the Germans and the Russians; his 1946 Bar Mitzvah in Berlin; life in Berlin after the Holocaust; his 1946 arrival in America; his decision to join the U.S. Army; his experiences trying to obtain United States citizenship; his life in America as a citizen and his activism in Holocaust survivor networks.

    Oral history interview with Helen Goldkind

    Oral History

    Helen Goldkind, born in Czechoslovakia (near Volosyanka, Ukraine) on July 9, 1928, describes her early childhood; experiencing antisemitism as a child; her recollections of the Nazi occupation of her town in 1944; her deportation to Auschwitz; how her grandfather was beaten to death for not relinquishing a Torah scroll; being sent to work at a munitions factory in Germany; being with her sister when they were liberated by British troops in 1945; spending time in the Bergen-Belsen displaced persons camp to recover; receiving help from the Swedish Red Cross and traveling to Sweden to recover; immigrating to the United States in 1946 with her sister; finding a job as a secretary in New York City; getting married and moving to Baltimore; the death of her sister and raising her children; and her reflections on the current state of the world.

    Oral history interview with Inge Katzenstein

    Oral History

    Inge Katzenstein (née Berg), born March 27, 1929 in Cologne, Germany, describes her family; having to move in with some of her extended family in Cologne after Kristallnacht; attempting to illegally cross into Holland; getting into Holland but immediately being captured and imprisoned; immigrating to Kenya but not being able to leave their home their without permission; attending stenography school to become a secretary; immigrating to the United States in 1951 and settling in Vineland, New Jersey; getting married and raising her children as Orthodox Jews; and returning to Germany twice and getting treated well.

    Oral history interview with Werner Katzenstein

    Oral History

    Werner Katzenstein, born in Wallensen, Germany on April 29, 1922, describes his childhood; having to leave school in 1933 after Hitler came to power in 1933; his father going to prison because he was Jewish but getting released after about a week; his father being forced to close down his business; buying property in Holland and immigrating there in 1937; immigrating to the United States in 1939 and settling in Somerville, New Jersey; being considered an enemy alien; registering for the draft and being called to service in March 1944; being sent for basic training to Camp Blanding in Florida; being classified for intelligence and reconnaissance work; joining the 100th Infantry Division in Fort Bragg, North Carolina; his deployment to Europe; going through southern France and the Vosges Mountains; and getting wounded in combat; returning to his platoon in January 1945 and going through Germany; being in combat in Heidelberg; working for the military government; visiting family who had been in Theresienstadt; returning for New Jersey on April 30,1946; and getting married and settling in Washington, D.C.

    Oral history interview with Fred Goldman

    Oral History

    Fred Goldman, born in Fürth, Germany on September 6, 1915, describes his childhood; his memories of Hitler coming to power; finishing high school and moving to Berlin to train to be a cantor and teacher at a Jewish Teacher’s College; returning to Fürth after three years and moving back in with his mother and sister; immigrating to the United States in January 1939 because a distant cousin vouched for him; arriving in the U.S. with twelve dollars and taking a job as a busboy at a department store in New York; marrying Ruth Schuster, a Jewish women also from Fürth; working in a uniform factory until he was drafted into the army in March 1943; becoming a member of the medical corps but then being transferred into the military intelligence unit when the army learned he was fluent in German; going to Camp Ritchie in Maryland; interrogating prisoners in Europe; staying with the army until March 1946, when he returned to the United States and became a diamond setter; and settling in Silver Spring, Maryland after the war.

    Oral history interview with Paulette Stessin

    Oral History

    Paulette Stessin, born in Metz, France, discusses her family and childhood in France; her parents, who sold clothing in the market; keeping kosher; her understanding of events in Germany in 1938 when she was 17 or 18; her family’s move to Angouleme, France where they thought they would be safe; daily life in Angouleme; her work as a hairdresser in Brive la Gaillarde, France, where there was one Jewish family; being arrested near Brive in April 1944; being transferred to Drancy and then to Auschwitz-Birkenau; her memories of Auschwitz; working on a road hauling stones; “Pitchipoi,” a term referring to the imaginary place they would be sent to and used by the prisoners in Drancy; the addition of a chemical to the women’s soup to suppress their menstrual cycles, which did not work on her; deciding to join her “camp sister”, a Dutch woman in another barrack, who was being deported; arriving at Bergen-Belsen; her memories of the camp; being liberated in April 1945; traveling to Paris; her reintegration at the Hotel Lutetia; and her decision to return to Angouleme.

    Oral history interview with Margitta Cooper

    Oral History

    Margitta Cooper, born on June 10, 1929 in Speyer, Germany, describes her family and childhood; her relationships with her non-Jewish friends; her memories of Kristallnacht; her father being arrested and sent to Dachau after Kristallnacht; her family’s arrest in 1940 and being taken to the Gurs concentration camp; gathering with about 20 other children and being told they were to be sent to the United States; separating from her parents and seeing them for the last time; spending time in a small French town before her immigration; finally travelling to the United States by boat in 1941; taking a train to Baltimore, MD to recover with the other immigrant children; meeting an uncle in New York City; finding out about the fate of her family; settling into life in Baltimore and receiving a job at the Johns Hopkins hospital; and her reflections on what the world knew about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Erika Eckstut

    Oral History

    Erica Eckstut, born June 12, 1928 in Znojmo, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), describes her family; staying with her sister and brother-in-law at the end of the war; marrying a member of the Czech Army, Robert Kauder, on August 28, 1945; living in Freiwaldau (Jeseník), Czech Republic; how her husband was the big boss (Velitel) in the city, removing Germans from the Sudetenland area; moving to Prague, Czech Republic; having two children over the next few years; how her husband testified at the Nuremberg Trials; the death of her husband in 1957; immigrating to the United States; finally arriving in the United States with her children on April 11, 1960 and being greeted by a swarm of reporters because she was among the first to be allowed to leave Communist Czechoslovakia; attending technology school; living with her sister, her sister’s husband, and their children for a year before getting her own apartment; meeting her current husband in 1962; her diagnosis of lung cancer in 1989; participating in a cancer research study and being one of two survivors of the seventy-five person study; and volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Tole Johannes Madna

    Oral History

    Tolé Johannes Hendricus Madna, born June 8, 1931 in The Hague, the Netherlands, describes his Indonesian father and his Dutch Protestant mother; living in Holland during the war; the divorce of his parents in 1936; living with his father and a nanny; hiding the infant son, Alfred Munzer, of family friends; the child staying with his family for three and a half years and calling him Bobby; moving to Belgium after the war; and immigrating to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Henri Dupuy

    Oral History

    Henri Dupuy, born June 5, 1920 in Thiviers, France and designated Righteous Among Nations, discusses his anger at the French government and Germany; his decision to join the Resistance; Constantin, nom de guerre Jambard, leader of the Armée Secrète (AS) who formed the Maquis in 1942 in Perigueux, France; how his mother, Helene, hid Maquis members in her home and procured ration cards; joining the police to avoid the draft; guarding the Perigueux Gestapo headquarters and stealing letters stamped “Dordogne,” denouncing French citizens; the November 10, 1943 Maquis attack in Perigueux and roundup and deportation of 350 Jews to Auschwitz; the arrest of the Gruska family and escape of their children; how his mother placed two Gruska sons with rural families and the daughter in a convent; how his mother secured forged identity papers with the complicity of Secretary-General Lafont, joining the Messignac Maquis; Maquis attacks from the woods; the supply of small arms by the Riberac police and by parachute drops; how the Maquis were denounced and attacked by Germans; hiding in Coursac, Dordogne, France and joining the Roland Maquis; a Maquis attack on the Neuvic-Bordeaux train carrying French francs to Germany in July or August 1944; and how the Maquis offloaded the francs in a truck to Saint-Alvere, a resistance center in the Dordogne, to support Maquis families and resistance activities.

    Oral history interview with Halina Peabody

    Oral History

    Halina Peabody (née Halina Janna Litman), born in Kraków, Poland on December 12, 1932, describes her childhood; taking on a false identity (Halina Litinska) during the war and pretending to be Catholic; hiding in Jaroslaw with her mother and younger sister; being injured on the day of liberation by a hand grenade; being liberated by the Russian Army; living in group homes with her sister after the war; traveling to Italy with her family and staying at a displaced persons camp; traveling to England and then going to Israel in 1957; taking a job at the American embassy in Tel Aviv; marrying a Bulgarian Jew who worked for the U.S. Information Agency; leaving Israel in 1968 with her husband and five year old son; immigrating to Palo Alto, California, where her husband could get a job at the Hoover Institute; moving to Washington, D.C., where Halina’s husband got a job working for “The Voice of America”; getting a divorce from her husband in 1972 and then marrying Richard Peabody; volunteering at the Holocaust Museum; and getting involved with survivor groups such as the Association of Child Survivors.

    Oral history interview with Marcel Bercau

    Oral History

    Marcel Bercau, born October 17, 1920 in Paris, France, describes his Romanian family; restrictions placed on Jews during German occupation; his deportation to Drancy in 1941; working in a locksmith's workshop and remaining in Drancy with his father and brother for a year before they were deported; going to Auschwitz, where he worked as an earth-worker and then as a bricklayer; working in the schlosser-electriker division, which allowed him to find a little bit of extra food; the evacuation of Auschwitz on January 17, 1945; going on a death march with 60,000 other prisoners and traveling through the snow and the cold with no food; arriving in Gleiwitz, Germany (Gliwice, Poland), where they were put in open cattle cars and transported to Oranienburg; how while they passed through Prague, Czech Republic people threw them bread and water containers; how four out of five people died during the transport; the German abandonment of Landsberg, where he was being held; being rescued and taken to Augsburg, where there was a repatriation camp; and returning to Paris to start a family.

    Oral history interview with Rolph Hammel

    Oral History

    Rolph Hammel, born on September 11, 1912, in Karlsruhe, Germany, describes his family; his involvement with a Zionist youth movement; being forced to do military service in 1933 in Dijon; getting scarlet fever; moving to Strasbourg, France and working in a hardware store before starting his own faucet and fixtures business in 1937; being allowed to remain in France because he had inherited citizenship from his mother who was French; working in the DCA during the war; helping to save 70 Jews in Périgueux, France; going to the ORT school; and his reflections on the treatment of Jews during the war.

    Oral history interview with Norbert V. Hilsberg

    Oral History

    Norbert Hilsberg, born on September 3, 1914 in Vienna, Austria, describes his family; graduating college and serving in the Austrian military for three months; starting the forms to immigrate to the United States after the Anschluss; his parents’ immigration to Cuba, where they stayed until April 1941, when they attained visas for the United States; receiving his visa in June 1938 and traveling to the United States; living with his uncle in Philadelphia, PA when he arrived; learning about the invasion of Poland; working in the advertising department of the Litz department store in Philadelphia; volunteering for the US Army in February 1941; getting sent to an engineering camp, where he made maps; the attachment of his outfit to the general headquarters in DC; being forced to remain in the US when his unit went abroad because he was not yet eligible for his American citizenship; receiving his citizenship in April 1943 and working on plans for the invasion of southern France and Austria; living in North Africa for nearly a year; being sent to Hawaii; leaving the army in 1945; accepting a job with the war department; and settling in Washington, DC with his family.

    Oral history interview with Alfred Munzer

    Oral History

    Alfred Munzer, born in The Hague, Netherlands on November 23, 1941, describes his family; how his parents debated over having him circumcised; his family going into hiding in May 1942; his father being admitted into a psychiatric hospital and his mother working at the psychiatric hospital as a nurse’s aide; his two older sisters being taken in by a Catholic family; going into hiding with a family friend and neighbor, Tolé Madna; how he played in the backyard and was called Bobby; his parents being sent to a concentration camp on December 26, 1942; his mother surviving the war, working first as a seamstress and later as an electrician; how his father died soon after liberation; the death of his sisters in Auschwitz; immigrating to Brussels, Belgium in 1952 and to the United States in 1958 with his mother; settling in New York where he attended Brooklyn College; going on to attend medical school at the State University of New York, Downstate Medical Center in Brooklyn; becoming a lung specialist and interning at several well known-hospitals before doing military service at Andrews Air Force base in Washington, D.C.; and settling in D.C. with his partner Joel Wind.

    Oral history interview with Maria Mandel

    Oral History

    Maria Myriam Mandel, born 1938 in Czerwinsk, Poland, discusses the assembly of the town's citizens in a square and their deportation; her family's escape through a bakery door; hiding from the Gestapo in granaries, cemeteries, and the woods; her parents’ execution by the Gestapo in 1942; her placement by her parents in a neighbor's home from 1942 to 1947; her new name, Katia Gortak; the kindness of her foster mother and brother; her Catholic education; her antisemitic feelings; the painful loss of her brother and sister who were placed in other families and abandoned; the arrival of the Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) at the end of the war; reuniting with her uncles in America and France; her shock at learning she was Jewish; her transfer to a Jewish orphanage in Czerwinsk, where she received a Jewish education; her recollections of antisemitism at the war's end; her life in the orphanage from 1947 to 1949; visits by her foster mother; her bitterness when visits ceased; how the JDC changed her birth date from 1938 to 1937 to allow her to travel alone from Poland to France; her arrival in Paris, France; her refusal to join her uncle in America; and her life in Perigueux, France with her paternal uncle and his family.

    Oral history interview with Yvonne Mignot de Royere

    Oral History

    Yvonne Mignot de Royere (née Roux), born in Clermont d’Excideuil, France on February, 22, 1925, describes how she and her father, Joseph Roux, saved 21 Jews during World War II; the evacuation of Jews in Strasbourg in 1939; working with her father, who was the mayor; taking in French Jewish refugees; how her work as a municipal clerk gave her access to forms and papers, which she used to provide the Jews with forged identity papers and ration cards; hiding Jews in the village rectory; one of the Jewish women giving birth to her daughter, Arlette Veil, in 1943; she and her father saving several families (last names: Robertso, Schwab, Wertz, and Veil); how three of the families were hidden in the caretaker’s house at the Chateau du Noyer and she helped them secure food; how she occasionally left the mayor’s office unlocked so that the families could secure additional ration cards; living in Excideuil from 1942 to 1944, after which the Jews returned to Alsace to rebuild their lives; staying in touch with the people she helped; and being honored with her father by Yad Vashem as Righteous Among Nations in 1982.

    Oral history interview with Susan Berlin

    Oral History

    Susan Berlin (née Suzanna Reichman), born on June 22, 1926 in Rožňava, Czechoslovakia (present day Slovakia), describes her family; her childhood in Rožňava; her memories of the rise of Nazi power; immigrating to the United States on August 3, 1939; settling in New York City, where she went to Julia Richmond High School; graduating in 1942 and attending Brooklyn College for her undergraduate degree and the University of Pennsylvania for her master’s degree; graduating in 1947 and moving to Washington D.C., where she got a job in the Army Intelligence Map Service as an Army Intelligence Research Analyst; marrying in 1950 and having three daughters; retiring from the Army Intelligence Map Service to raise her daughters; becoming an art teacher when her children got older; and volunteering at the Holocaust Memorial Museum in the Education Department.

    Oral history interview with John Bucur

    Oral History

    John Bucur, born in Youngstown, Ohio on March 5, 1925, describes his childhood; his Romanian-American parents; the multiracial community he grew up in; graduating high school in 1943 as the valedictorian of his class and receiving a scholarship to Ohio University; enlisting in the Army and being sent to Fort Sill, where he received training to be in Battery B of the 17th Observation Battalion; his first assignment watching a ship off the shore of Omaha Beach in France on D-Day; his unit’s move through England, France, and Germany and then going on a tour of Buchenwald at the end of the war; taking college courses at an American School in Biarritz, France after the war; returning home on December 7, 1945 and being discharged from the army; finishing his degree at Ohio University and graduating in 1948; going on to medical school and becoming a neurosurgeon; having five children with two wives; and moving to Arlington, Virginia to found Fairfax Hospital, Northern Virginia Doctor’s Hospital, and the National Orthopedic Hospital.

    Oral history interview with Lore Schneider

    Oral History

    Lore Schneider (née Heti Lore Koppel), born on October 10, 1924 in Bochum, Germany, describes her family; seeing the Nazi youth in her neighborhood; observing the Nazi parades from her home on the main street; immigrating to the United States in June 1934; settling in Washington, D.C. and attending public school; obtaining U.S. citizenship in 1939, five years after her family’s arrival; attending college at night and working as a stenographer at the Interior Department during the war; and marrying in 1946 and having three children.

    Oral history interview with Frank Liebermann

    Oral History

    Frank Nathan Liebermann (né Franz Natan Liebermann), born in Gleiwitz (Gliwice), Poland on January 19, 1929, describes his family; celebrating Jewish holidays; immigrating to the United States in October 1938 and moving to Dayton, Ohio, where his father set up his medical practice; his family’s involvement in the Jewish community and helping many European Jews to immigrate to the United States; attending Western Reserve University; meeting his wife during his sophomore year and marrying her soon after he graduated; working for a textile converting firm for many years before retiring and moving to Washington, D.C., where his two daughters had already settled; finding a job at a travel firm; and beginning to volunteer at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum after September 11th, 2001.

    Oral history interview with Marianne Liebermann

    Oral History

    Marianne Liebermann, born in Vienna, Austria on October 29, 1929, describes her family and childhood; her education; her father searching for ways to leave Vienna and immigrating to the United States after the Anschluss; her father’s efforts to convince a gentile American family, with whom he had previously done business, to vouch for his family; boarding a train to Cherbourg, France in September 1938 and transferring to the Europa ship, which took them to the U.S.; arriving in New York on October 3, 1938 and living there when the war broke out in 1939; graduating from Barnard University and later going on to get her master’s degree at Adelphi University; marrying Frank Liebermann on November 23, 1950; settling down in Great Neck, New York and having three children; becoming a teacher and spending many years teaching English as a second language; and settling in Maryland.

    Oral history interview with Thea S. Rips

    Oral History

    Thea S. Rips, born in Trieste, Italy on February 24, 1922, describes her childhood; her family moving to Rijeka, Croatia when she was five years old; growing up in a Catholic family but having many Jewish friends; witnessing the persecution of nearby Jewish families; aiding several families in their attempts to escape Italy; wanting to become a doctor and working in a shipyard infirmary in Rijeka; getting a job working on the Marshall Plan after the war in Rome, Italy; being offered a chance to move to the United States and work as an interpreter in 1955; meeting her husband, who she was engaged to for eighteen years before they married in February 1976; going to the United States and living in New York; moving to Washington, D.C.; and the death of her husband in September of 1994.

    Oral history interview with Andrew Glass

    Oral History

    Andrew (né Andrej) James Glass, born November 30, 1935 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses his early childhood; spending time in his wealthy grandfather's house because of his mother's illness; his grandfather, Jacob, repatriating millions of dollars which had been deposited in Switzerland, New York, and London, back into zlotys in Poland because of a 1939 government decree; hearing planes and bombs exploding in September 1939; his father being forced to clear rubble and fill sandbags; supplying gas to a gentile taxi driver and two families driving east on September 13; going by horse and cart and then by train and on foot to Vilnius, Lithuania; his father getting picked up by a Lithuanian patrol but being released when he agreed with them that President Roosevelt was Jewish; his family receiving three Japanese visas from Chiune Sugihara, the Japanese Consul; paying 600 dollars to get Soviet transit visas; traveling on the Trans-Siberian Railway and arriving in Japan in December 1940; getting three residence visas to the Dominican Republic and a one week transit visa from the American Consul in Tokyo, Japan; sailing on the Kama Kumakara in April 1941 to San Francisco, CA; taking the train to New York, NY and staying there until 1943; immigrating to Canada; re-entering the U.S. under the Polish quota; his father working in a defense plant and his mother working as a seamstress in New York; how he determined to not feel different; working for the New York Herald Tribune, the Washington Post, Senators Javits and Percy, and Cox newspapers from 1974 to 2001; becoming a Fellow at Harvard and the managing editor of The Hill newspaper; and feeling that he is living on borrowed time, that life is precious, and that there is a randomness to who survives.

    Oral history interview with Renate Fischer Chernoff

    Oral History

    Renate Fischer Chernoff, born on June 25, 1929 in Breslau, Germany (Wrocław, Poland), describes her early childhood; moving to Racibórz, Poland with her family in 1934; being sent to Berlin, Germany to stay with her grandmother in 1937; her family choosing to immigrate to Canada since her father was a physician; arriving in 1938 and settling in Montreal; moving to New Brunswick; her parents adopting Saul Silvershein, a sixteen year old Polish boy from a displaced persons camp; attending college at Dalhousie University; meeting her husband while in graduate school at the University of Chicago; marrying in New Brunswick in 1953 and moving to Saint Louis, MO where her husband finished his residency and their first child was born; moving to Durham, NC, where they had two more children; and settling in the Washington, DC area in 1980.

    Oral history interview with Eli Dortort

    Oral History

    Eli Dortort (né Klemfner), born on August 30, 1920 in Zdachov, Galicia, Poland, describes his family and childhood; escaping his hometown a few hours before the Germans invaded; traveling with some Russian soldiers to Kiev, Ukraine and then to Starobielsk (Starobil's'k), Ukraine, where he volunteered for the Polish Army; his unit being sent to Israel, where he deserted and worked in a kibbutz; staying in the kibbutz for a year before he joined the British Army and was sent to Italy; later being stationed in Teheran, Iran and Egypt; returning to Israel after the war and fighting in the War of Independence; staying in Israel until the late 1950s, when he immigrated to the United States; and settling in New York City, where he met his wife and had a daughter.

    Oral history interview with Hilda Seftor

    Oral History

    Hilda Seftor (née Cohen), born in Edinburgh, Scotland on August 21, 1923, describes her family and childhood; finding out about the Nazi invasion of Poland; helping her local Jewish community and finding homes for thirty-five Jewish refugee children; her parents founding the Whittingehame Farm School; teaching the school’s Jewish children how to farm and giving them a traditional education; attending the Edinburgh College of Domestic Science and graduating with a degree in household and institutional management in 1943; working in the Edinburgh school system and later at a wartime nursery preparing meals for children; marrying after the war and immigrating to the United States; having four sons; moving to Washington, DC in 1994; and volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Felix Nicinski

    Oral History

    Felix Nicinski (né Fievish Nicinski), born December 7, 1925 in Lochów, Poland near Lódź, Poland, discusses his early childhood; moving in to the fenced-in ghetto in early 1940; how the Germans bombed their city before entering it; being taken to a work camp in Lienzingen (Mühlacker, Germany) in late 1940 with the other 14 to 18 year old boys to dig ditches; slipping away on a march in the summer of 1941 to work and escape to the fenced-in ghetto in Kalisz, Poland; receiving the false identity of an escaped 27 year old; Kalisz Jews being sent to the Lódź ghetto in 1941; being forced to wear the yellow star and beaten by the German guards; working at an ammunitions plants in Skarżysko-Kamienna for 10 months in 1942; being sent to Dora in 1943 and then to Buchenwald in 1944 for six months; his transfer to Bergen-Belsen in 1944; being liberated by the British on April 15, 1945; living in Bamberg, Germany between 1945 to 1948 and learning how to be a barber; immigrating to Australia in 1948 and living there for ten years; immigrating to the United States in 1958; and marrying another survivor of Bergen-Belsen.

    Oral history interview with David Brombart

    Oral History

    David Brombart, born on August 3, 1933 in Brussels, Belgium, discusses his childhood; the German invasion in May 1940 and being able to attend school until mid-1941; the deportation of his sister, Sarah, and his mother in August 1942; running away from a boarding school in Ikla (possibly Uccle in Brussels) and his father placing him in the home of business clients; going into hiding in Hornu, Belgium but visiting his father, who was in hiding in another city; his liberation in September 1944 and returning to Brussels with his father; finding out that his grandfather was a member of the Jewish Committee which made up lists for the Germans; returning to school at age 11 and learning how to write; serving in the Belgian Army from 1952 to 1954 and becoming the head of the Socialist Democratic Youth until 1958; having a full time job with the Young Socialist Guard and attending international conferences as the Labor Secretary from 1958 to 1964; living in Paris, France from 1958 to 1959; getting married in 1961; being offered a job to direct the African Labor Institute of the American organization AFL-CIO; moving to New York and advising labor movements in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia; becoming Deputy Director of the International Department of the AFL-CIO under Lane Kirkland; and being honored for his international labor work by the governments of Dahomey, Togo, and Senegal.

    Oral history interview with Gunter Haimann

    Oral History

    Gunter Haimann, born on January 26, 1922 in Koblenz, Germany, describes his childhood and family; his parents deciding that it was time to leave Germany in the beginning of 1937, when Jewish children were banned from public schools; immigrating to the United States and living with his aunt in Queens, New York; attending high school and night school to learn English; graduating in June 1941 and finding a job at an auto shop; his draft into the army at the beginning of the war and being trained as an interrogator; teaching interrogating techniques at Camp Ritchie in Maryland; his transfer into the 101st Airborne; going to England and jumping on D-Day and landing in Carentan, France; serving with the 101st for the remainder of the war; receiving a Purple Heart after being wounded in Bastogne, Belgium; not taking religion in to account while he was fighting; jumping onto Holland on Rosh Hashonah in 1944; going into Düsseldorf, Germany; finding Hitler’s stationary and using it to write letters; going to Austria and finding Mr. and Mrs. Goering and speaking with Mrs. Goering; seeing Holocaust survivors walking home; returning to the United States and starting a luncheonette business; and meeting his wife and having three children.

    Oral history interview with Alfred Lakritz

    Oral History

    Alfred Julian Lakritz, born on June 1, 1934 in Kiel, Germany, describes his family; narrowly escaping deportation to Poland in 1939 and moving to Antwerp, Belgium and then Marmande, France with his family; experiencing antisemitism from his peers in Marmande; how his father was arrested; speaking with the men who arrested his father many years later, and their regret; being sent with his brother to a Jewish summer camp in Creuse, France in July 1942; going into hiding in various safe houses for two and a half years after leaving the camp; ending up at a convent in Lourdes, France, where they met a Jewish French woman who took them in for the remainder of the war; being placed in a Catholic home in Tarbes with his brother after the war; reuniting with their mother in Marmande and applying for visas to the United States; immigrating to the United States in 1950 and settling in Oakland, CA; attending the University of California at Berkeley; completing his law degree; moving to Los Angeles, CA with his wife, whom he had met in law school; and raising a family.

    Oral history interview with Rita Rubinstein

    Oral History

    Rita Rubinstein (née Frieda Rifka Lifschitz), born on December 12, 1936 in Romania, describes her family and early childhood; her father’s draft into the Russian Army; going into hiding in Transnistria, Ukraine in September 1941; her liberation by Russian troops in April 1944; returning to their home in Romania and discovering that her father had died during the war; attending school for the first time and learning Russian and Ukrainian; traveling to Munich, Germany and posing as a Greek refugee; living in the Feldafing displaced persons camp for some time; developing tuberculosis in 1947 and having to go to a sanitarium in Augsburg, Germany; immigrating to the United States with her mother in September 1949 and settling in New York, NY; and getting married in 1959 and starting a family.

    Oral history interview with Anita Etzyon

    Oral History

    Anita Etzyon, born on October 4, 1941 in Boryslav, Poland (present day Ukraine), describes her family and childhood; being one year old when her mother died from tuberculosis; having few direct memories of the war but being told about her family’s life during that time; being taken away to live with a Christian family and getting baptized to better fit into her surroundings; returning to live with her father, who had remarried, after the war; living in a Jewish neighborhood and attending a Jewish school; moving to various cities around Poland with her father and step-mother; being the only Jew in her school in Swidnica, Poland; adjusting to life as a Jew after she had spent four years as a Christian; immigrating to Israel in 1951; learning Hebrew and adjusting to life in Israel; getting married to avoid serving in the Israeli Army; having a daughter; immigrating to the United States with her husband and daughter 1963; settling in Washington, DC and working for a Jewish Day School; and her reflections on being a Jew in the modern world.

    Oral history interview with Melvin Galun

    Oral History

    Melvin Galun, born on May 10, 1940 in Kowal, Poland, describes his parents’ participation in the Zionist movement; his mother’s stories about Jews being sent away to the camps; going into hiding in the nearby forests; his memory of his family’s liberation by Russian troops; staying in several German displaced persons camps after the war; his early education in the displaced persons camps; participating in Zionist youth movements in the camps; immigrating to the United States in November 1949; his studies in the United States at a Yeshiva school; traveling to Israel after graduating school and working in a kibbutz for a year; and getting married in 1963 and starting a family.

    Oral history interview with Magdalena Farkas Berkovics

    Oral History

    Magdalena Farkas Berkovics, born on July 15, 1919 in Cluj, Romania, discusses her childhood, schooling and musical training in a conservatory; experiencing low level antisemitism; getting married in 1939; living in her house in the Cluj ghetto with other women after the city’s Jewish men had been taken away for forced labor; conditions in the ghetto, including food scarcity and the black market; providing piano lessons to Christian children; being deported in June 1944; terrible conditions in the train car; her arrival at Auschwitz; being separated from her family except for one 25-year-old cousin; how her clothes were taken away and her hair removed; going to Stutthof in August 1944 and then digging ditches in Steinort (Sztynort, Poland), Elbing (Elbląg, Poland), and Groudentz; speaking about freedom with the other women and singing Hungarian songs; being liberated and traveling to Satu Mare, Romania, where Jewish volunteers helped her return to Cluj; how she found Christians living in her house and learned that she was the only survivor in her family; marrying, Zoltan Berkovics, in 1946; the birth of their son, Tiberius, who later changed his name to John Sylvanis because of antisemitism in Romania; how Communists nationalized her house and forced her to pay rent; teaching in the Romanian conservatory for 30 years; immigrating with her husband to the United States in the 1980s; and feeling very grateful for American liberty and democracy.

    Oral history interview with Sol Mackler

    Oral History

    Sol Mackler, born on January 15,1921 in Poland, discusses his childhood in a small village; visiting relatives in nearby Radom; being forced to live in a ghetto in 1939 with sixteen people in one house; wearing a yellow star; in late 1941 walking seven miles to Pionki labor camp, being given a striped uniform and the number 1058; working in a munitions factory, then laying railway tracks in a tunnel; escaping with four other prisoners to the forest and joining Polish Jewish partisans; being captured by Germans and being sent by train to Sachsenhausen; seeing his sister and her baby there; smuggling his one year old nephew into Pionki to the child’s father, a tailor who made Nazi uniforms; waiting for Russians at liberation; going back to his village and being severely beaten; living in Bad Nauheim displaced persons camp in Germany; working on the black market selling diamonds from Belgium; arriving in the United States in December 1949 after being sponsored by two Jewish Californian wine makers; moving to New York to work and getting married in 1956; working for his brother-in-law; and finding out his parents were executed in Treblinka.

    Oral history interview with Theresia Bauer

    Oral History

    Theresia Bauer discusses her involvement with the League of German Girls (Bund Deutscher Mädel), which paralleled the boys’ Hitler Youth (Hitler Jugend); the Soviet occupation of Austria, a time period in which she was constantly hiding from soldiers; and her husband's experience as a prisoner of war in Russia.

    Oral history interview with Carolina Taitz

    Oral History

    Carolina Taitz (née Lena Knoch), born on February 24, 1929 in Russia on a train, discusses her childhood in Viesite, Latvia; having friendly relations with schoolmates in her Latvian public school; how her father, a tree doctor, lost his business and the family house and was temporarily imprisoned as a capitalist when the Russian Communists occupied the town; experiencing a lot of antisemitism; seeing Jews being shot on the street when the Germans came in 1941; being forced to live in the ghetto in Riga, Latvia with five people to a room and little food; getting hit in the eye when a German soldier caught her with a cooked potato; being forced to work in a shoe polish factory from 5 AM to 5 PM; going on a forced march with 30,000 people guarded by German soldiers; seeing and hearing people being shot in a ditch in the Rumbula forest; walking with her mother, sister, and 200 other women to Termini prison; staying on the roof in the cold for two weeks in November 1942 and the birth of a baby, named Termina; going back to the ghetto; dressing as a boy going to work and escaping during a second Aktion when she was 14 years old; taking off her yellow star; being sheltered by a Russian Evangelist priest, Vladimir Michko, and his sister for two and a half years; living in their cellar; going back to Riga at liberation; her mother returning from Auschwitz but dying soon after; attending acting school; getting married and having a daughter; trying for 10 years to go to the United States, and finally getting a visa with the help of Eleanor Roosevelt; arriving in New York in March 1966; working at the New York City Opera for 19 years in charge of costumes, wigs, and makeup for the productions; being widowed twice and moving to Washington, DC in 2008; and still seeing her mother and little brother in her dreams and herself running away from German soldiers.

    Oral history interview with Helen Schwartz

    Oral History

    Helen Schwartz (b. Hela Kirschner), born in 1925, discusses living in the Łódź ghetto in Poland from 1939 to August 1944; working in a laundry in the ghetto; being taken with her family to Auschwitz concentration camp in 1944; being marched from Auschwitz to Stutthof; her liberation by the Russians near Gdansk, Poland; contracting typhus in an outbreak that hit a group of female survivors following liberation; returning to Łódź and reuniting with her sister; reuniting with her brother at the displaced persons camp in Ainring, Germany; immigrating in 1949 to Portland, Maine, where her husband worked in a clothing factory; opening a tailor’s shop in 1954; raising a family; volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum; and speaking at schools in Silver Spring, Maryland.

    Oral history interview with Irene Silver

    Oral History

    Irene Silver, born Irena Dynkewicz in Łódź, Poland on January 30, 1933, discusses raising her children in the Jewish tradition, being comfortable with friends who understand the Holocaust experience; her anger with people who ask why victims did not fight back during the Holocaust; being tolerant of strangers after having lived with strangers in the Warsaw Ghetto; her work as a social worker and how it was influenced by her wartime experiences; her sympathy with the civil rights movement; her membership in the Hidden Children group in New York where she feels a common ground; receiving Holocaust reparations which she used to help her children; her view that the world has not learned any lessons from the Holocaust; and her emotion at the opening of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, feeling that the rain at the opening ceremony was the heavens crying.

    Oral history interview with Herman Taube

    Oral History

    Herman Taube (né Herschel Taube), born February 2, 1918 in Łódź, Poland, discusses his family; being orphaned by age nine; living with grandparents and later moving to Piyotrkov; attending a yeshiva; being encouraged by a Polish doctor to become a medic; returning to his grandparents in Łódź in 1935 and seeing antisemitic incidents; writing poetry; belonging to a literary society and meeting the Jewish philosopher Martin Buber; working in a military hospital in Alexandrov (possibly Aleksandrów Łódźki, Poland), arranged by Father Jagla, a Catholic priest; joining the Polish Army in August 1939; serving in a medical group that marched to the Bug River where the Soviet Army ordered the group to go to Volodymyr-Volyns'kyĭ, Ukraine to get educated so as to lose their capitalist mentality; accompanying a wounded soldier to Poltawa (Poltava), Ukraine, where an Ukrainian militia man arranged for him to take a new name, Grigori Arionowicz Taube, and live with a Jewish family; going to Samarra (Koibashov or possibly Kuybyshev) and getting more medical training; being sent to Tyumen (Tiumen') in Siberia and working in hospitals and in gulags; in November 1941 going to Tashkent, Uzbekistan and then to Andizhan, Uzbekistan; working in a malaria clinic; leaving the clinic after reporting that people were stealing food from the hospital; going to Seratov, Russia to the Polish Army; being assigned to the Kotsk offensive in June 1944; being badly injured by a mine explosion while riding in a truck; recovering enough by December 1944 and going to Lublin, Poland to the Polish Army headquarters in Majdanek; being assigned to Platte and opening a Red Cross repatriation station where he treated people with typhus; going to Keslin in Bessarabia in June 1945 to acquire more medicine from a CIBA warehouse; meeting a young woman, Susan Strauss, a survivor from Germany and traveling together to Potsdam, Germany; staying in a displaced persons camp in Halle-Merseburg, Germany, where he opened a Red Cross station; meeting a young Auschwitz survivor, Henry Rothfogel; traveling with Susan back to Platte, and getting civilly married and later religiously married; traveling with Susan and Henry in the summer of 1946 to Berlin, Germany with help from the Bricha; adopting a two year old child survivor, Mark; having first child in the Zingenheim displaced persons camp in September 1946; arriving in the United Sates on April 18, 1947 and being interviewed at the pier by the Jewish Daily Forward; going to Baltimore, MD to join Susan's father; writing for the Jewish Daily Forward; traveling to New York, NY to edit a Histadrut yearbook; returning to Baltimore and helping Susan run a grocery store; working for various Jewish organizations; obtaining accreditation as a journalist at the White House and in Congress; and continuing to write poetry, stories, and essays about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Regine Ginsberg

    Oral History

    Regine Ginsberg, born on November 19, 1925, discusses her childhood in Brussels, Belgium; her father’s work in the leather industry; religious observances in the household; speaking Yiddish at home and French in school; how her father wired money to Chase Bank in New York in the 1930s; her family abandoning their home in Brussels to travel by train to France; staying with a farmer in St. Gaudens, France; the family’s arrest in St. Gaudens; how her brother and father were sent to a prison near Toulouse, France and then released seven weeks later; how her mother returned to Brussels and brought back Sabbath candlesticks, prayer shawls, tefillin, and diamond jewelry which she used to bribe guards; how her father contacted a cousin in Pennsylvania; being on the last boat out of France from Marseilles; arriving in New York in June 1942; staying with cousins in Pittsburgh, PA and then settling in McKeesport, PA; her mother and father’s work in the leather industry; moving to Texas where she met her future husband Reuben Ginsberg in Athens, TX; her brother enlisting in the army and being sent to Belgium where he did intelligence work acting as a French interpreter; studying along with her husband at Columbia University in New York; becoming an art dealer and opening up a gallery in the 1970s; her emotional state after the war; and how her wartime experiences affected her life, her marriage, and the way she raised her children.

    Oral history interview with Ursula Guttstadt McKinney

    Oral History

    Ursula Guttstadt McKinney, born November 17, 1925 in Frankfurt an der Oder, Germany, discusses her family’s professional and religious background; her childhood and the troubles she faced obtaining schooling due to being half-Jewish; the difficulties her Jewish father and cousins faced; worrying about her father getting arrested; being able to say goodbye to her father when he was taken to prison and subsequently transported to Mauthausen in October 1942; receiving news that her father died; the Third Reich taking ownership of her family’s house; getting expelled from school in October 1942; moving to Berlin, Germany with her mother and sister; the psychological effects of the war, especially the bombings; her limited contact with the underground; working at a convent where there were some hidden Jewish children; her difficulties resuming a normal life after the war; her education after the war; feeling like an outcast because of being half-Jewish; immigrating, along with her sister, to the United States; not wanting to identify as German; her feelings on being a “mischling,” or having a mixed background; not identifying with one religion and being wed in an Unitarian church; and her work as a founding member of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Rappaport

    Oral History

    Ruth Rappaport, born May 27, 1923 in Leipzig, Germany, discusses her parents, Mendel Rappaport, a Romanian subject, and Helene Rubinstein, who was born in Poland; how her mother’s cousin, also named Helene Rubinstein, was a well-known cosmetics businesswoman, attending an Orthodox Jewish school and an English language school in Leipzig, Germany; her membership in the Zionist youth group, Habonim; her Romanian passport, which did not identify her as a Jew; moving to Switzerland with her family shortly after Kristallnacht; staying in Zurich, Switzerland as a nanny for the Herzog family after her parents returned to Germany; selling nail polish, which her parents sent because they could not send money; being sponsored by her uncle, Carl Rubinstein, who lived in Seattle, Washington to come to the United States; leaving Europe in December 1939 on the Holland American Line boat, the Veendam; her parents’ attempt to leave Germany with Cuban visas; how her father died in Buchenwald and her mother in Ravensbrück, both in 1943; attending high school in Seattle, then the University of Washington, and finishing at Berkeley, majoring in sociology; working after graduation for a Jewish newspaper in Seattle and for the Zionist Emergency Council; working with Bartley Crum for UNSCOP (United Nations Special Committee on Palestine) in San Francisco, CA; working in Israel during the War of Independence in 1948, where she exchanged gunfire with Palestinians; working with Golda Meir; helping establish the Israel Photographic Archives; returning to the United States and working for the Department of Defense as a librarian; living overseas in Okinawa, Japan; Taipei, Taiwan; and Vietnam; and retiring from the government after 19 years.

    Oral history interview with Edith Langer

    Oral History

    Edith Langer, born October 4, 1932 in Hamm, Germany, discusses living on a farm; her devout Lutheran mother; memories of the prewar Jewish community in her town; her early approval of Hitler because his support of public works; meeting Hitler as a member of her scout troop; attending a one-room school with 30 children, 10 of whom were Jewish; her father’s offer to hide the families of two of his Jewish customers in her family’s farm house; her mother’s feeling that hiding Jews was the right thing to do as a Christian; her father's murder by the Nazis for hiding Jews; being sent away from her family to work on a farm, where she stayed from 1941 to 1945 and had no contact with her family; being afraid of German soldiers; seeing murdered Jews in the streets; giving food to the Russian prisoners, who were living on the farm; emigrating from Germany to the United States in 1956; becoming an American citizen in 1961; her hope that more Nazis would be tried, including the one who shot her father; her membership in the Methodist Church; and taking part in protests against the American Nazi Party.

    Oral history interview with Marianne Milkman

    Oral History

    Marianne Friedenthal Milkman, born May 13, 1931 in Berlin, Germany, discusses her childhood in Germany; being baptized and raised as Christian to have more opportunities; changing schools and apartments in 1938 because of anti-Jewish laws; her aunt Lotte Friedenthal, who worked with Pastor Martin Niemӧller; her father’s deportation to Sachsenhausen in 1938; traveling to Switzerland in January 1939 and then flying with her sister to England on a Kindertransport in May 1939; living with relatives in Cambridge, England; the arrival of her parents in England and her father’s internment on the Isle of Man as an enemy alien; joining her father on the Isle of Man in May 1940; returning to Cambridge in May 1941, where she remained throughout the war; graduating from high school and Cambridge University; coming to the United States in 1957 to study biology; getting married and living in Iowa for 30 years; settling in Washington, DC; her Jewish identity; and her feeling that her experience during the war made her a stronger person.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Cohen

    Oral History

    Ruth Friedman Cohen, born April 26, 1930 in Mukachevo, Czechoslovakia (present day Mukacheve, Ukraine), describes her life after the Holocaust; her prewar life in Czechoslovakia; her family’s religious beliefs; her family’s deportation to Auschwitz in 1944; her mother and brother’s death immediately after their arrival at Auschwitz; her transfer to Nuremberg, Germany and then Holachov; the painful effects of tuberculosis that she contracted in Holachov; her survival and liberation by the Russian Army; her and her sister’s return to Mukachevo, where they reunited with their father; her time in Budapest, Hungary and Prague, Czech Republic, where she recuperated from tuberculosis; her immigration to the United States in 1948; the various jobs she had to support herself; her marriage in 1952; her education at the New School for Social Research; and her struggle to recover from the damaging emotional and mental effects of the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Phillip Abraham

    Oral History

    Phillip Abraham, born August 10, 1931 in Podului-Turkului (Podu Turcului), Romania, describes his prewar life in Romania; his family’s religious beliefs; his childhood in a close-knit Jewish community; his family’s move to Tecuci, Romania in 1940; his father being taken away and then released in 1942; the lack of food available to the population; his education in a Jewish school; his town’s liberation by the Russian Army; his post-war Romanian education; his membership in Hashomer Hatzair, a Zionist youth organization; his time in Israel; his education at Hebrew University and Weizmann Institute, where he studied physics; his immigration to the United States in 1959; his careers at Raytheon and the Office of Naval Research; his marriage in 1964; and his two children.

    Oral history interview with George Arnstein

    Oral History

    George Ernest Arnstein, born September 20, 1924 in Stuttgart, Germany, describes his prewar life in Germany; the repercussions of the Nuremberg laws; his experiences with antisemitism; his father’s arrest on Kristallnacht; his father’s time in Dachau; his family’s decision to leave Germany and go to Geneva, Switzerland; his family’s immigration to the United States in 1938; the anti-German sentiment in America during World War II and its effects on him; his service for the United States Army beginning in 1943 and his duties as a crypto-analyst; his work in Germany helping to perform interrogations, monitoring anti-American efforts, and denazification; his return to Wisconsin after the war; his education at Berkeley and Geneva; and his life post-war.

    Oral history interview with Gertrude Scarlett Epstein

    Oral History

    Gertrude Scarlett Epstein, born July 13, 1922 in Vienna, Austria, describes her early life growing up in Vienna; her Czech father’s belief in free thinking; how her family was not religious; her parents’ and older brothers’ experiences during World War I; her Uncle Willie, who became wealthy as a textile factory owner; how she began to notice antisemitism in Vienna when her family moved to a non-Jewish part of town in the 1930s; her father’s and oldest brother’s activities in the socialist movement; her memories of a strike in Vienna in 1934; her memories of the Anschluss; her brothers’ immigration to England; her experience securing visas for Czechoslovakia on the day Hitler entered Vienna; her feelings that her moral code shifted as it became necessary to lie; her father’s arrest and later release from jail in Czechoslovakia; the family’s move to Albania by train; help provided to the family by her Uncle Willie; how she smuggled money out of Austria and Czechoslovakia; her family’s life in Albania from November 1938 to April 1939; the reaction of native Albanians towards Austrian refugees; how the Joint Distribution Committee helped refugees in Albania; her experiences teaching German to Albanians and the Italian consulate; problems she and her mother had in securing passage from Albania to England; brutal treatment she and her mother received from German police at a fuel stop in Germany; her memories of learning about concentration camps in 1943 or 1944; and how she tracked down an Albanian family to whom she taught German.

    Oral history interview with Matilde Neuwirt

    Oral History

    Matilde Neuwirt, born December 26, 1930 in Belgrade, Serbia, describes her early life in Belgrade; how her parents spoke Serbo-Croatian and Ladino at home; her family’s upper-middle class lifestyle; her schooling at both a public and a Jewish school; the lack of apprehension she felt in the pre-war years; her mother’s decision that the family leave Yugoslavia in the summer of 1940; her family’s escape westward through Dubrovnik, Croatia and then to Italy; how her parents smuggled money out of Yugoslavia; her family’s arrival in Italy without visas; living in Vicenza, Italy; how her family was moved to a detention camp in Sandrigo by the Italian authorities; the unofficial schooling that families set up for the children in Sandrigo; how the Italian authorities encouraged families to leave Sandrigo when Italy capitulated to the Germans; the help Jewish families received from a government official to get false documents; her family’s experience traveling to Rome, Italy; her memories of German brutality on the streets; how she did not know what was happening to Jews elsewhere in the country nor the rest of Europe; her brother’s return to Yugoslavia to fight with Tito’s partisans; the anti-Jewish sentiment of the partisans; her brother’s disappearance and the lack of information about him from the Yugoslav government; her family’s decision to emigrate from Italy to the United States in 1949; her family’s arrival in New York, NY; her feelings about Americanization and leaving memories of Europe behind; her memories of the Eichmann trial; her experiences returning to Yugoslavia and Italy after the war; and her belief that her family was lucky in the way they lived through the war.

    Oral history interview with Susanne K. Bennet

    Oral History

    Susanne Klejman Bennet, born August 11, 1938 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her memories of entering the Warsaw ghetto; seeing the brick walls being built in the ghetto; living with her grandparents, aunts, and uncles all together in one apartment; beggars asking for food in her building; how her father, a successful art and antiquities dealer, arranged with a non-Jewish friend to have a Polish policeman take her out of the ghetto to a farm in the countryside; how, just before the destruction of the ghetto, her mother escaped from her work group and hid with nuns who gave her a habit and a new name; how the nuns were later rounded up, but were saved on the train platform by a Catholic commandant; how her father escaped from the ghetto through the sewers right before the uprising and went into hiding throughout Warsaw; how as a young child, she knew not to talk about her parents; seeing the red sky in the distance when Warsaw was burning in 1944; her reunion with her parents; the death of most of her relatives during the Holocaust; moving with her parents to Stockholm, Sweden in 1947; receiving visas in 1949 from the Swedish ambassador to Mexico where she and her family stayed for nine months; immigrating to the United States in 1950; living in New York where her father opened up a store off of Fifth Avenue and became a major art dealer with John and Robert Kennedy, the Rockefellers, the Fords, and Greta Garbo as his clients; attending Wellesley College, where she received a masters in library science; meeting her husband Douglas Bennet, who later worked for Hubert Humphrey, Senator Abe Ribicoff, and was an Assistant Secretary of State, head of US AID and NPR, and president of Wesleyan College; their eldest son, Michael, a United States senator from Colorado; their second son, James, the editor-in-chief of The Atlantic Monthly; their daughter, Holly, a financial adviser; her feelings when visiting Germany with her husband; how her father never spoke about his wartime experience; and how she has only recently started talking about her childhood during the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Marianne Roberts

    Oral History

    Marianne Roberts (née Marianne Cohn), born June 20, 1920 in Ludwigshafen, Germany, discusses her childhood in Ludwigshafen; experiencing antisemitism; her father's death from tuberculosis in 1933; her expulsion from school with her sister, Lottie, because they were Jewish; her mother's death in 1936; being photographed at the City Hall to show her "Jewish left ear" and being given the name ‘Sarah’; living with her sister until Kristallnacht; hiding in a basement for three days with no food while their apartment was being destroyed; moving into her sister's fiancé’s family's house for a few months and never going outside; going to the American Consulate to get visas their mother had applied for three years previously; leaving Germany in early 1939 with 4 dollars, pots and pans, and a family ring; sailing on the Cunard White Star to New York, NY; working in a doctor's office in Brooklyn; getting married and having two children; and speaking for past 20 years in schools and colleges about her wartime experiences.

    Oral history interview with Harry Markowicz

    Oral History

    Harry Markowicz, born August 9, 1937 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his childhood in Antwerp, Belgium; being hidden during the war with the Coons family in Brussels, Belgium, then in a children's home, and then in the Von der Linden's house under the name Henry Von der Linden; his parents who lived in hiding with another couple; how his father did not go outside for two years while in hiding; his brother, Mani, who was saved by Father Joseph Andre; how his mother found him after liberation; the removal of Allied flags at the time of the Battle of the Bulge because of fear that German forces would make their way to Brussels; arriving in the United States with his parents in March 1951; settling in Seattle, WA and going to high school and the University of Washington; traveling to Paris, France for a year for training as a French teacher; traveling to Israel to learn Hebrew; teaching French in Tacoma, WA; learning sign language and working at Gallaudet University for 29 years; feeling more comfortable among Holocaust survivors; and volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, where he feels a bond with the other volunteers.

    Oral history interview with Julie A. Keefer

    Oral History

    Julie Keefer (née Jula Weinstock Eisen), born on April 19, 1941 in Lvov, Poland (present day L'viv, Ukraine), discusses her family’s forced relocation into the Lvov ghetto; the escape of her grandfather, Aiski Eisen, from a camp in Janov; her grandfather finding help from Mr. Borecki, who told him in late 1943 that the ghetto was to be burned, and her grandfather’s rescue of her family from the ghetto; her memories of a tunnel or bunker in the forest, to which a few dozen people were smuggled out of the ghetto; her memories of her grandfather donning a Nazi uniform to smuggle people out of the ghetto; being taken out of the bunker because she and her baby sister, Tola, were endangering others by crying; being placed with Mrs. Szwarczynski, a Catholic woman; the arrival of the Russians in Lvov in June 1944; staying in three displaced persons camps in 1945; living in Camp Taylor in Linz, Austria; traveling alone at seven years old to the United States, where she lived in a series of Catholic orphanages, seeing relatives on weekends; being called a Nazi because she spoke German; being sent by the Joint Distribution Committee to the Bellefaire Jewish Children's Orphanage in Cleveland, OH; her adoption by Fred and Tea Klejstadt; attending Oberlin College; getting married and earning a graduate degree in education; feeling grateful to United States; and her desire to find out what happened to her hidden sister whose name became Antonina Noviska.

    Oral history interview with Erica Laufer

    Oral History

    Erica Laufer, born May 11, 1930 in Klagenfurt, Austria, discusses being the only Jewish child in her school, where she was taught by nuns; her mother denying her Jewish identity but her father being observant; an appearance by Hitler after the Anschluss; being forced to wear the yellow Star of David; being barred from attending school; moving into her grandfather's apartment in Vienna, Austria and living there in secret; SA attacks on Jewish homes; witnessing the events of Kristallnacht while hiding in a doorway; how her father obtained tickets to Trinidad; sailing on the Dutch ship Cotica with other refugees; establishing a life in Port of Spain, Trinidad; being forced, as refuges, to live in a detention center after England entered the war; going to a boarding school to be the companion to the daughter of the director; sailing to New York, NY with her parents in December 1940; moving to Washington, DC where she was discriminated against by other children because of her accent; her academic success; her work for the federal government; getting married and starting a family; not raising her children as Jews following an oath to her mother; the number of relatives she lost in Europe; and her attempts to suppress her feelings about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Barbara Goldberg

    Oral History

    Barbara Goldberg, born in 1943 in Wilmington, DE, discusses her parents, Emma and Erich, who received visas from the Portuguese diplomat Aristides de Sousa Mendes to emigrate from France to Portugal; their journey over the Pyrenees to Spain and then to Portugal; their arrival in the United States; her uncle Paul Brennan (born Pavel Briess) who had been in Theresienstadt and Auschwitz; how other relatives made it to Palestine, Australia, and South Africa; speaking only German in the house; how her parents’ personalities were shaped by the war; never discussing the past or other relatives' stories; feeling a connection to refugees; living with the memory of the Holocaust; and her discovery later in life that Aristides de Sousa Mendes had helped her family.

    Oral history interview with Liselotte Epstein Ivry

    Oral History

    Liselotte Epstein Ivry, born July 21, 1925 in Lichtenstein, Czechoslovakia (possibly present day Lichtenstein, Saxony, Germany), describes her family, including her father Victor Ivry, mother Elsa Sicher, and younger brother Hans; the large families on both her father’s and mother’s sides; having heard of Hitler at age 12; being taken by truck with soldiers to live with relatives in a nearby village and then by train to live in Prague, Czech Republic; the many changes after the Germans marched in on March 15, 1939; having been set to go to Great Britain in 1939 on the Kindertransport but instead being sent first to a children’s facility in Prague and then to a private home; being sent to Terezin September 9, 1942 to work as a nurse in the hospital; the transport and death of her mother and brother on March 8, 1944; being sent on December 15, 1943 in a cattle car to Auschwitz, to Block 11; being given number 70663; how the will to live was what kept you alive; being sent to Hamburg, Germany to work first in a sand pit, then as a train switcher, and finally as a brick-maker; how their camp was bombed and they were moved to Bergen-Belsen; the ensuing chaos and then the emotion and celebration after being liberated by the British; eventually going to Canada in 1949 to stay with her uncle; marrying in 1950 to a Lithuanian, Sydney; her children; her attitude about Germany now and forgiving but not forgetting; her book, I Am Their Voice, which is a collection of poems, letters, and anecdotes by children from her 25 years as a speaker; and how now she is doing research for a work about Madeleine Albright.

    Oral history interview with Hans Ziegler

    Oral History

    Hans Ziegler, born June 12, 1925 in Brno, Czechoslovakia, discusses being raised as a Christian with a Jewish father; his parents divorcing in 1934; his father’s factory going out of business in 1937; attending a German elementary school; his father’s deportation to Terezin (Theresienstadt concentration camp) in 1942; being transported to Berlin, Germany in 1943 for forced labor; being sent in September 1944 to Postelberg (Postoloprty), Czech Republic; escaping in April 1945 with two others to the woods; hiding in Brno until the Russians arrived; getting repatriated and going to university for three years; being expelled by the Soviets in 1949 because his father was a capitalist and a diplomat; being in the military for two years; being employed as a chemist in an armaments factory; working in Egypt and Afghanistan; escaping to Germany in 1970 and staying until 1983; going to the United States and working in Warren, Ohio until 1990; going back to Germany; feeling more Jewish than Christian; and how he thinks more about his father and his war-time experiences.

    Oral history interview with Vera Levine

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Guenter Lewy

    Oral History

    Guenter Lewy, born August 22, 1923 in Breslau, Germany (Wrocław, Poland), discusses his childhood in a large extended assimilated family; his memory of seeing Hitler at the 1936 Olympics; belonging to a Jewish Zionist youth group; being attacked on a hiking trip by German storm troopers; his father’s three month imprisonment in Buchenwald after Kristallnacht; going with Youth Aliyah via Trieste to Palestine in March 1939; being met in Haifa by his uncle; living on Kibbutz Tzarad where he worked as a shepherd; his parents’ escape to the United States in late 1941; volunteering in early 1942 for the Palestine Regiment of the British Army; joining the Jewish Brigade and being stationed in Egypt; traveling to Italy with Montgomery's 8th Army in late 1944; traveling to Holland at the war’s end; his role in organizing illegal immigration to Palestine; interrogating German civilians in Berlin; returning to Palestine; traveling to the United States to see his parents in late 1946; graduating from college in 1951 and earning a Master's and Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1957; teaching at Columbia, Smith College, and University of Massachusetts; teaching in Germany from 1961 to 1962; his feelings about German people today; the strong influence of his youth group on his resilience; his writings on the moral dimensions of history and the Nazi persecution of the Romani peoples; his current interest in writing about Holocaust perpetrators; reoccurring dreams about Nazis brutality; and feeling that some of the best Holocaust scholarship has being written by contemporary young German scholars.

    Oral history interview with Malvy Solomon

    Oral History

    Malvy Solomon (née Aizic), born in 1938 in Bacau, Romania, discusses pre-war violence against Jews; her father’s conscription into forced labor for the Romanian military in 1941; living with her mother and grandmother in the ghetto with little food; her father’s return in 1944; attending a Jewish primary school and learning Hebrew; surviving bombings; the Soviet arrival in Romania at war’s end; Soviet looting after the war; her school’s closure by Soviet authorities; post-war antisemitism and anti-Capitalist feelings; her father’s job working for the communist government after he was forced to close his store; finishing high school at 16; her medical schooling and career; her marriage; immigrating to Israel in 1961; attending medical school in Tel Aviv; getting divorced, treating soldiers and bombing victims; remarrying in 1971; immigrating to the United States; her education in the U.S.; working for the Department of Veterans Affairs; and her feelings about the war, communism, and her life.

    Oral history interview with Elia Miranski and Genia Miranski

    Oral History

    Elia Miranski, born on August 3, 1922 in Mir, Poland (present day Belarus), describes growing up in a poor, moderately religious family but experiencing no antisemitism until the German invasion in 1939; his parents’ deaths in the first few days of the occupation; escaping with his brother, Israel, from the ghetto which had been set up in a castle; joining Russian partisans in the forest; blowing up railroad tracks for two years; trains near Valozhyn, Belarus; planes dropping supplies; others taking the wounded away from the front lines; Russians mobilizing all partisans into the army; being wounded by the Germans; traveling back to Mir after the war; working on a dairy farm for seven years as a supervisor; moving to Minsk, Belarus and working as a house painter; getting married and having a daughter; going to Israel in 1972 and then to the United States in 1995; thinking day and night about his wartime experiences; and going back to Mir from Israel for a memorial ceremony in the cemetery. Genia Miranski, daughter of Elia Miranski, adds to her father’s interview by translating it into English and by describing Elia’s membership in the Zionist youth group Hashomer Hatzair; Elia’s parents and two younger siblings being shot by Germans; Elia building bridges and roads; witnessing his friend being mauled to death by a dog; living in the castle ghetto; Elia’s experience escaping and hiding in a swamp for three days and at times breathing through a straw when German dogs were nearby; joining Russian partisans; his return to Minsk at the end of the war and experiencing a significant amount of antisemitism; the Six Day War in Israel; going to an underground bakery at night to get Passover matzo; arriving in Israel in 1972; living in underground bunkers in 1973 during the Yom Kippur War; and her own arrival in the U.S. in 1985 and her parents’ arrival in 1995.

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