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Oral history interview with Aron Grynwald

Oral History | Digitized | Accession Number: 1993.A.0088.58 | RG Number: RG-50.002.0058

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    Oral history interview with Aron Grynwald
    Transcript
    My name is Dr. Sidney Lang, and I'm
    the director of the Oral History Project
    at the Holocaust Studies Research Center
    at Kean College of New Jersey.
    I'm very pleased that Mr. Aron Grynwald, who presently resides
    in Newark, New Jersey, has come to the college today
    to discuss some of his insights and experiences
    during the Holocaust.
    Mr. Grynwald, I want to thank you very much for coming.
    You're welcome.
    Could you tell me a little bit about the town
    you were born in, the date you were born in,
    a little bit about your family?
    I was born in Bedzin.
    This is a town on the border between--
    before the war, before the First World War,
    this was like six miles from the border.
    Sometimes, this town was Germany.
    Sometimes, it was Poland.
    Now, it's just Poland.
    What year were you born in?
    I was born in October 21, 1904 in this town.
    This town was a Jewish town, they call,
    because the town was 50,000 residents.
    From this 50,000 was 35,000 to 40,000 Jews.
    The rest was Poles.
    The whole economic-- there was the Jewish.
    The factories in this town was Jewish, the stores, everything.
    It was a Jewish town.
    My father was a very religious man.
    He was president from the orthodoxy,
    from the Agudat Yisrael in this town.
    He was president from the Talmud Torah they called this.
    He was president from the Jewish--
    I suppose not like a hospital, but it's called
    [SPEAKING HEBREW] in Hebrew.
    He was president.
    He was over there when a poor woman has to be born a child,
    she come over there.
    This was on the cost for this [SPEAKING HEBREW]..
    But the [SPEAKING HEBREW] was also an old age home.
    It was a few poor people.
    And he was used to have a [INAUDIBLE]..
    You know what is [INAUDIBLE]?
    No.
    When they circumcise a boy.
    A sandek?
    A sandek.
    That's right, yeah.
    Yes, sandek -- The men would hold this --
    he's sitting on the [INAUDIBLE].
    And for this, he gift.
    Sometimes, he went to home to the poor people.
    For why he did it?
    He give them for the party money for--
    as I said, for the honey cake, for vodka, for drinks,
    and so on.
    I tell you I curious.
    One time, come a man and told him
    that his wife has born a boy.
    He needed to prepare for the party.
    He take the address.
    OK, he give him the money.
    And he-- I invited you for the Sunday to be for this
    he gave the money.
    Then, the day he come over there,
    nobody was [LAUGHS] there.
    Sometimes also so.
    He owned a factory, wire.
    Wire dooring, wire fence, wire cloth,
    everything made from the wire, can say, he had the factory.
    The factory he established in 1903, at this time.
    I was the second.
    Before me was a sister.
    We were ten kids.
    When I was three years, he took the tallis around me
    and took me under arm to the cheder.
    They told me so.
    I don't remember this.
    I am three years.
    He provide just like they say.
    By five years, I started Chumash.
    He made a big party.
    And I get a gift from my grandfather, three silver
    [INAUDIBLE] in this time.
    And I had these--
    Kiddush cups.
    I had these till the Germans took this me away, kiddush
    [INAUDIBLE].
    That's silver kiddush cups.
    Yeah, kiddish cups.
    And he, by five years, like he said in the Mishnah
    [NON-ENGLISH SPEECH].
    This is something I forgot.
    [Hebrew]
    [NON-ENGLISH SPEECH]
    And now, I am [NON-ENGLISH SPEECH]..
    [LAUGHTER]
    I learned in the yeshiva also after the cheder, Gemara,
    first --
    I learned in the yeshiva.
    But I was, in this time, looking in conspiracy
    Yiddish literature.
    And this was forbidden to read, something from parents.
    Sholom Aleichem --
    Your father forbade it.
    Yes, my father forbid it.
    Why?
    Why?
    This was orthodoxy.
    This was traif, traif.
    Right.
    Not kosher.
    One time, my father come, when I learned in the yeshiva.
    He said that I am not learning.
    I fool around.
    And the Rabbi told him so, that I don't want to learn.
    Then, he said to me, that you don't want to learn,
    I will take you to the factory.
    And you will be a shoe --
    a shoemaker, I will make.
    He took me in the factory.
    And he said to the foreman, you treat him like everybody,
    not like my son.
    So he was angry.
    He finally sent me to the school.
    I learned.
    Then, he sent me to Germany.
    And I finished over there in [? Brig ?] by Breslau, not far
    from Breslau.
    What year did he send you to Germany?
    This was after the war, after the First World War,
    1918 or 1919.
    [INAUDIBLE]
    So you were about 15 years old when you went--
    Yeah.
    --to Germany.
    You went to yeshiva in Germany?
    No, no, no.
    To a technical school.
    You went to a technical school.
    This was a [SPEAKING GERMAN],, they call this in Germany.
    I finished over there.
    He said, when you won't learn he has no other choice.
    I finished, and I practiced in Germany over there
    in a factory.
    I practiced a certain time.
    And I come back home.
    I was at home.
    I have my diploma--
    like a technique--
    Technical Diploma.
    Technical Diploma.
    And I was employed by my father in the factory.
    After, my sister, what was before me,
    she was in the university.
    She finished university.
    And she finished also she has the title doctor.
    The other sisters went to the schools.
    They finished high school.
    They finished the --
    And about the brothers, all to the cheder.
    This was all in Poland.
    The orthodoxy, the women to these general schools,
    but the boys to the cheder.
    But the one break out.
    Nobody in this time won't learn in the cheder --
    The second brother after me don't want ;
    the third the fifth.
    He learned.
    He was younger.
    1927, I met my wife.
    Then, I started--
    So you were 33 years old--
    Yeah.
    --when you met your wife.
    Yes.
    And I started to build me a factory.
    I [? was-- ?]
    Your father was still alive at this time?
    Yeah, he was alive, of course.
    I build myself machines to this what I can.
    Some I bought.
    And I moved with these machines to Kraków.
    I give this not my name like an owner but under other name,
    Kraków Wire Factory.
    In the register, by the court, there was my name,
    that I am the owner of this.
    And I feel that I have ground that I can--
    this became prosperous, this.
    Then, I married.
    We married in 1939 in Kraków, where we lived in Kraków,
    at this time.
    Were there any changes in Kraków between 1933 and 1937?
    Changes like when you see there wasn't the same like in Bedzin
    in home.
    But in 1933, when Hitler came to power,
    before Hitler came to power, even Hitler came to power more,
    the Polish government started antisemitic limits
    for the Jews.
    You cannot do.
    This you cannot--
    Some limit.
    Like my sister cannot go to the university to study,
    I give you example, to study what she want because this was
    numerous clauses for the Jewish students.
    They hit the Jewish students.
    The Polish students hit Jewish students.
    The Jewish students-- this was a law in the universities--
    the Jewish student has to sit on this bench, a ghetto
    they made for the Jewish students.
    And the Jewish students don't want to sit.
    And they stood.
    They always were standing because this protest
    that they were standing.
    There was a thing.
    And they hit them because why you don't sit down?
    The professors was antisemitic.
    A few were more liberals, progressives.
    And we feel this in the business too, mostly in the economic.
    My father's factory, this was where we lived.
    This was our town.
    The whole state, this is called in Germany, Oberschlesien.
    There was the miners.
    They sent them from the coal miners.
    They sent them from the steel industry.
    We have orders from them.
    This was for the industry and some for the agriculture too.
    They came the director from the big steel industry.
    He said to my father, Grynwald, I want to give you the orders,
    but it's not allowed.
    Do something.
    Then, my father sent a Polish man.
    The Polish man took his name the order
    and give this to my father.
    A middle man, the Polish, he must be.
    For this reason, I not give my name in Kraków.
    On the business.
    For the business.
    This is [INAUDIBLE],, Kraków Wire Factory.
    So you married your wife, you said, in 19--
    '39.
    On March 8th 1939.
    And we lived near the factory.
    On the 1st September, 1939, in the morning,
    the Germans bombed Kraków in Poland.
    They start the war.
    This was Friday.
    Sunday, they--
    Did you know?
    Or did you have any warning that Germany--
    [INTERPOSING VOICES]
    No, nothing.
    In the morning, Friday, in the morning, we hear a bomb.
    Then we take the radio.
    We hear this is--
    Did you know what was going on in Germany
    though between 1933 and '39?
    Yes.
    But you didn't think that anything--
    Did I tell you that they pushed out
    from Germany the Jews what was born in Poland--
    Right.
    --or their fathers was born in Poland.
    And they come to us, to Poland.
    And this was collecting clothes and other things.
    But they come naked.
    They come to [Place name] This is a town where
    the Poles don't let them in.
    And the Germans don't let [? them. ?] There was a no
    man's [? land. ?] Under the skies, they was living.
    They collect the money from the Jewish people,
    the Jewish community collected, in the whole Poland, clothes
    and money for them.
    And we feel that the 1st of September, this is war.
    We know what is Hitler.
    But we didn't imagine this will be so [INAUDIBLE]..
    Because I was in Germany.
    I lived in Germany.
    I studied in Germany.
    This is other.
    People was cultured and people, were very friendly.
    Sunday, in the morning, all Jews go out.
    Not only Jews, but Polish people also from Kraków.
    They said we go out to the east, everybody.
    And over there will be the Polish resistance
    against the Germany, the army.
    We went to a town--
    Szydłowiec it was called.
    Did you go with your wife?
    I with my wife and our neighbors, all we go.
    We come over there in the evening.
    The day later, they said we have to go
    across the Vistula, the river.
    This is the biggest river in Poland, Vistula.
    We have to go because over there will be the front.
    We [? want ?] fight the Germans.
    They said, all men have to go over there.
    My wife said to me, go.
    Everybody going because the Germans will kill all the men,
    they said so also.
    I went with my neighbor where I lived.
    We went.
    But after four days, the Germans catch us.
    The Polish army was running retreat and we with the army.
    And they found there the Germans catch us.
    And then we were staying in a small village,
    a very small village with one Jew was only over there.
    We went to this Jew because we see we are --
    it's nothing.
    The Polish army is not able to fight with the Germans.
    We stayed.
    by the Jew.
    they said, we will wait a few days till the front will go.
    And then we go back to Kraków.
    This was near Kolbeshev.
    I don't remember the [? small ?] [? things. ?] We stayed over
    there over Rosh ha-Shanah.
    After Rosh ha-Shanah, that day, we started to go back by foot
    to Kraków.
    On the road, oh, Jews, Jews.
    And the Germans catch us to work.
    We have to work.
    I come back to Kraków.
    I come back to my house.
    My wife was waiting.
    The Germans give for the Jews a limit.
    You have till 7 o'clock curfew.
    You have to stay home.
    From 7 o'clock till the morning, I
    don't remember what time in the morning.
    But the evening, 7 o' clock was not allowed for Jews to go out.
    To buy bread-- this was at Jewish bakeries.
    Mostly it was Jews in Kraków.
    But the owner can do nothing.
    This was a line for bread.
    When I stand in the line, the Poles called the German police,
    [INAUDIBLE] Jude..
    There's a Jew.
    He pulled me out from the line.
    Jews had not the right to get bread.
    I remember the wife on the back said, what I can do?
    Jewish.
    She was Jewish.
    I am working.
    And they denounced everybody.
    This was the bakery what I bought every time by her bread.
    She said, I hide bread.
    But they come.
    They find.
    This was terrible for the Jews because the Polish people
    were very antisemitic.
    Then come also contribution.
    The Jewish, like you said, Judenrat,
    must pay so much and so much money,
    so much and so much linens.
    The German give -- we must give to them.
    Then, every day, people to work for them.
    I work a lot of days.
    One day in the week or something.
    Mostly Sunday because I was working in the factory.
    The Sunday I was free, I went to work to clean the streets
    in Kraków from snow, from ice, so to clean.
    Sometimes, they send me to the military Kaserne to clean.
    But I remember when we went to the Kaserne,
    we work over there in a hospital.
    We this time, it was a few Jews.
    We made sabotage over there.
    The Kaserne is the--
    Well, it's military.
    The military headquarters?
    Like here, Fort Dix.
    OK.
    How you call this?
    Military camp.
    Military camp.
    That's it.
    What we can do to damage them, we did.
    I remember we transferred bandages for the hospital.
    We put in the middle that something
    for the horses, what we find.
    so that they cannot --
    This was not a big damage for them.
    But --
    Sometimes, they beat us.
    This belonged to which place we came to work by the military.
    Sometimes, they beat us.
    And sometimes, it was that some people come no back
    from the work also.
    In this time, they divided us from our parents.
    The towns where my parents lived and the parents for my wife,
    the family for my wife, they add this to the Third Reich
    to Germany.
    That means that over there was German.
    Bedzin they call Bendsburg.
    And Zawierce for my wife, Warthenau This
    was not possible to have communication like before.
    Yes, the Germans gave an order that they
    have to wear bands with the Star of David, every Jew.
    It was who will not have the band, they will shoot.
    Do you remember what date that was?
    I don't remember this.
    But this was in the beginning some--
    In this time, on the street where we lived,
    was many Jews from Germany, what they come in 1938.
    They come to us, their neighbors.
    They said to us, Mr. Grynwald, you are with Well --
    You have a nice apartment.
    Here is a couple.
    This couple was going to Russia in this time
    because Poland was divided between Russia and Germany.
    Right.
    And they catch them.
    And the Germans catch them.
    And they sent him back.
    So they come back to Kraków.
    They were from Oberschlesien.
    But they cannot go back because this was a new border.
    And they come.
    The neighbors take this couple in.
    We took them in.
    We gave them a room.
    We live very nice people.
    I work in my factory.
    This man become a gardener by the Gestapo.
    And he worked by the Gestapo like a gardener.
    In 1940, they come an order oh, there's too much Jews are
    in Kraków--
    this was in this time.
    84,000 and still was coming from other, from the Third Reich,
    they pushed out Jews to Kraków.
    The Germans come, too much Jews.
    We have to transport them to the east.
    And I also get a paper to come to this in this place,
    to go to the transport.
    You yourself, not you and your wife?
    No, this me and my wife too.
    And your wife also.
    Yes.
    My wife went to the Chamber of Commerce.
    This was a whole history with her,
    they catch her that she hid the band from the star of David
    because it's not allowed to go over there Jews.
    And this chamber of commerce where I was a registered
    because I had a factory--
    there was my name over there, not the name for the factory.
    They said, did you have a commissaire?
    You know, the Germans, they took over every factory
    was belong to Jews.
    They called this the [NON-ENGLISH SPEECH]..
    I don't know what in English I can--
    this is the headquarters for all Jewish industry,
    all Jewish stores, big stores.
    My wife had no.
    You have to have a commissaire, a German,
    then we give you the permit to live here in Kraków.
    They give us a commissaire, a German, Mr. [? Ertel ?]
    from Wien, Vienna.
    And one time, he came to me, to my house, in the morning.
    He said before, I be --
    I will come.
    He came and took me to the headquarters from the, I --
    Arbeit -- This is like--
    The work--
    Labor--
    Labor force.
    Department of--
    Of Labor.
    The Department of Labor.
    Over there, it was forbidden for me to go with a car.
    And this was in the German section from the town.
    He said to me, you sit in the car.
    He went out and looked.
    This was in the morning--
    8 o'clock.
    They started to work 8 o'clock.
    This was before 8:00.
    And then he opened the door.
    He said, [INAUDIBLE].
    Right away, in.
    Because on the sidewalk can be caught somebody
    from [INAUDIBLE].
    Over there, only police, military men, only Germans.
    He went me to the office.
    And he gave my papers.
    I had the diploma from the German school,
    technical school.
    I had from the factory what I practices.
    And I was staying.
    And the man, I remember his name,
    what was the head from this Labor Department--
    [Personal name]
    He said, look, to the other people.
    Look-- a Jew is the wire doing.
    A Jew, wire fence, wire weaving.
    This was not a Jewish--
    It was an unusual occupation.
    Occupation for Jews.
    But I was for this because my father has this, and I too.
    He said, he is the one in the whole general government.
    One Jew from this profession.
    And he right away give me the permission that I can live here
    in Kraków.
    And I can work in the factory.
    This was 1940.
    1941, and there was a ghetto come to life.
    I get from the Judenrat--
    I show them that I'm working.
    I have the permit to be here from the Labor Department.
    And I am working.
    They give me in two rooms three families.
    Which ghetto was this?
    Kraków.
    Ghetto Kraków.
    Their man what was living, this couple,
    with me, he was privileged because he
    worked by the Gestapo like a guard there.
    And the Gestapo worker has a special house.
    All people were to work by the Gestapo--
    the tailors, the shoemakers, the furriers, carpenters,
    mechanics, and so on.
    And he got two rooms, he and his wife.
    Then, he said to me, Mr. Grynwald,
    I was living by you for 1940 near a year by you.
    Over a year.
    Over a year.
    Some 14 months.
    Now, when you want, you can live with us.
    And you have a choice what you want--
    the kitchen or the room.
    We shared this two-room apartment.
    We was living over there.
    How many people were living in the ghetto.
    Do you know?
    In the ghetto?
    I think in the beginning, it was like--
    exactly, I cannot tell you.
    But I think 10,000.
    12,000, maybe.
    How big was the ghetto?
    What I can tell you?
    I don't have the measure from the kilometers, the miles,
    the miles squared or something.
    But 10,000 people were concentrated in a--
    But I have the plan.
    I have the plan from the ghetto in the book what I show you.
    This--
    10,000 people were concentrated in very small areas.
    Yeah, we were squeezed.
    And the ghetto started there March 20, '41.
    The head, I must say to you, from the Judenrat,
    was Professor Biberstein.
    He was a professor in the Jewish gymnasium, high school.
    But he was not for the Germans.
    He was chairman from the Judenrat.
    But for the Jews, he was working.
    He refused them.
    Then, they took him.
    And they give him in the prison.
    And they finished him.
    And they nominate another head from the Judenrat,
    Dr. Rosenzweig.
    I don't know the name.
    But he was also a fine man.
    And finally, they give him the transport.
    Intelligent people for them was not good.
    Then in 1943-- that was in 1942.
    I only give you about the chairmen from the Judenrat.
    They give chairman from the Judenrat a man not intelligent,
    nothing.
    And this was good for them because he
    listened to the orders more for the Germans
    than for the Jewish people.
    I only knew about the different from Professor Biberstein,
    from Dr. Rosenzweig--
    I don't remember.
    Dr. Rosenzweig, and the third was
    Gutter that was from these Jews what was coming 1928
    from Germany, he was.
    And 27th of December 1941, there was an order
    to give all fur coats everything, gloves, hats,
    for the German army.
    And the Judenrat has to collect it.
    And who will not give, right away, death.
    Everything was right away to shot.
    Many people, they burned their things.
    Many people.
    But they was wrong because we could see in the chimneys.
    This is going.
    the camp people said, don't do this because they are looking,
    the Germans.
    IWe give up the fur, i give up my fur coat.
    My wife give up the fur coat, everything.
    I still was going out.
    I had a permit from this Arbeit, from the Labor Department,
    to go out to the factory.
    In the evening, I come back.
    And when I was over there, I can buy me food.
    And I bring me in this ghetto.
    I had family in Warsaw.
    My father was born in Warsaw.
    He has, over there, a brother, a sister, uncles.
    My mother write me that uncle [Levin and the tante
    is in Warsaw, in ghetto over there.
    It was 1941.
    And you can do something because there wasn't a Third Reich
    Germany.
    But I was in Poland.
    I can send.
    But a Jew cannot send.
    I took my worker from the factory.
    And he sent this.
    He went in the post office.
    He sent that package to the ghetto.
    You can send five kilo.
    What you want, only five kilos.
    I sent my wife's melt fat in a bottle.
    I sent a kilo of flour.
    This a kilo, this a kilo, kasha and other things.
    One time, I bought by a peasant.
    Outside when I went to the factory.
    Over there, I came.
    I bought a bottle of honey.
    That was something--
    Special.
    --extra.
    And we said, we will send this to our uncle Levin.
    We get back a letter from the tante.
    Every time, the tante was writing.
    And the uncle was writing in Hebrew.
    And my wife was the secretary.
    She was writing to our home, to her family.
    And she write that she get a letter from the tante
    that from the whole packages what you sent,
    butter, schmaltz, fat, and other things,
    the [INAUDIBLE] is not eating from this because it's not
    maybe kosher.
    But the honey was kosher.
    This is not special.
    Thank you for this because I only keep this for him.
    She write this.
    My father answered her.
    You know what you have?
    A [INAUDIBLE] that uncle Levin write to you a letter.
    Keep this letter.
    And she keep this till Auschwitz.
    Till 1944, she keep this letter.
    In Auschwitz, they took off everything.
    1941, I must say who was that uncle.
    1941, when we wasn't still in the ghetto, before the ghetto--
    1940 this was.
    1940.
    They get a Rabbi.
    You hear about him.
    He was in Kraków.
    He was from Warsaw.
    He was coming to Kraków.
    And even Kraków, he was going--
    the Gestapo took him to Italy and from Italy
    to Israel in war time.
    He has the right to take with him 10 people.
    One from the choices--
    Was your uncle.
    --was my uncle.
    Why did the Gestapo let him go to--
    I tell you.
    I tell you.
    The uncle, they call him the in the ghetto --
    [INAUDIBLE]?
    The [INAUDIBLE],, the prime minister from the [INAUDIBLE]..
    He was related with the Rabbi.
    His brother was a brother-in-law from ghetto rabbi.
    His brother.
    But he refused to go with the Rabbi.
    He will stay with his wife and children.
    He has nine children.
    He chose to stay in the Warsaw ghetto
    with them, with the wife and children.
    And his place went [personal name] Levin,
    his nephew, a nephew from him, [Personal name] Levin left his
    wife and two kids.
    He went with the Rabbi.
    Did the Rabbi take his own family?
    Yeah, own family.
    This cost a lot of money.
    This meant the agency from the Agudat Yisrael
    in London, in Switzerland, they made this business
    with the Gestapo.
    They paid a lot of money for them, for the Rabbi wiht
    this [INAUDIBLE].
    I give you a story.
    [Personal name] Levin, when he come in the other side,
    he sent papers for his wife and kids to take them out,
    that they are citizens for some other [INAUDIBLE] country.
    But she wasn't.
    She was taken to Treblinka this time.
    And she lived.
    For my uncle, the uncle, the tante
    and the nine kids what he has, only two daughters
    saved after the war.
    One was running away from Warsaw Ghetto to Bedzin,
    where her sister, older sister, was living.
    And they went to Auschwitz.
    She was a nurse in the hospital in Auschwitz.
    And she saved her sister.
    She hid her.
    After the war, they went from Auschwitz.
    The Russians took them because they
    said that they are from France.
    Then, the Russians took them to Russia, to Ukraine, to Odessa,
    and over there, with a boat, to Marseilles.
    Then, they was coming to Marseilles,
    the two sisters, Levin.
    They went to the Jewish Committee.
    And they said, we are here, our name.
    Give to Meir [INAUDIBLE] Levin.
    You hear about him?
    He was minister.
    [INAUDIBLE] and the independence declaration from Israel,
    he signed it, that we are here.
    Then come back right away to the committee.
    Give them what they needed because they
    were in their stripes still.
    Giving them what they needed.
    I will give you back.
    The oldest one, the sister, married a cousin,
    [Personal name] Levin.
    He replaced her father.
    She moved to Israel.
    No, [Personal name] Levin died maybe four or five years
    ago in Israel.
    This is one.
    The other sister was living in Paris.
    This was 1940, he went to Israel.
    1941, my wife smuggled to her-- she went to see her mother.
    She made it to the borders.
    She risked her life.
    And she came back 1941.
    That was the one time she went out of the--
    Yes.
    --out of the ghetto.
    Yes, she came back.
    1942, the life in the ghetto between the Jews was good.
    But outside, we feel in every--
    I was going to the factory.
    The Poles knew the Jews.
    In June 1942, on the 3rd of June, the 3rd of June 1942,
    they closed the ghetto.
    Military, police, SS, everything.
    And they made a selection.
    We have to bring our permit what I was going out from the ghetto
    to the factory.
    Everybody has to bring this permit.
    When they give the stamp, then it's good.
    No, they took away.
    And they collect the people in a place.
    This was around with military.
    I went over there.
    And I showed them the papers.
    This was good.
    I had German papers.
    And they said that this is not false
    because this was from 1922, 1923.
    He gave me the stamp.
    And I was permitted to be in the ghetto.
    In this day, they took 6,000 Jews to the railroad.
    And they sent them away.
    They said, in this time, they'd sent to the east
    under Ukraine to work under the front for the army.
    Nobody knows what this is.
    Men and women or just men?
    Men and women.
    Men and women.
    Where do you think those 6,000 people were sent?
    Please?
    Where do you think those 6,000 people were sent?
    I'll tell you after.
    You will hear the story.
    I will tell you.
    After this selection, after this in June,
    they cut the ghetto smaller.
    The street what I was living with the German couple.
    They moved this couple in other house.
    And I must go in the other apartment.
    Well, it was for two rooms.
    Again, rooms, three families.
    It was no good.
    We have no room, a corner, because the families
    was with youths.
    It was one family four persons.
    One family was three persons.
    We was only two.
    In the ghetto, I made money, in this time, in the factory.
    Everybody what has a product, they made money.
    I sent money to home.
    I transferred money.
    I give you an example.
    I went, at that time, Saturday, Sunday, was a Rabbi over there.
    He was the brother for [INAUDIBLE] rabbi.
    And I went over there.
    And he has his Hasidim in Bedzin,
    in [INAUDIBLE], over there.
    And they won't give money for him.
    Then, I give them money.
    And they give back this to my parents.
    My parents don't needed the money.
    But I was here alone in Kraków.
    We have my wife.
    It, for me, was better than --
    I sent dental [INAUDIBLE] I bought for the money
    because I was not sure if I will live.
    this better than this is in our house.
    Over there, I have brothers, sisters younger than me.
    I was sure somebody will live.
    I sent over there.
    I sent to the family for my wife also some jewelry, diamonds.
    How were you able to send all of this out of the ghetto?
    How able I was how to get --
    By my father was working a Polish man.
    And he has a permit to come to Kraków.
    He come to me, and he took this.
    By her family--
    Your wife's.
    Yes, it was the commissaire on her brother's business.
    He came and took.
    And for me, was good because I have nowhere for where to live.
    My father was the factory.
    This was our house.
    He was living in our house.
    By her was also they have a house, [INAUDIBLE]..
    They can keep this someplace in the house.
    And I was in a rented apartment.
    In 19--
    I'm going to stop you for one second.
    OK.
    They're changing the tape.
    Charlie, we just stop, OK?
    In September-- in the September 1942,
    there was a big arrest in the ghetto.
    This was arrest every day, but this was big arrest.
    This come from this, that the Jewish underground
    throw grenades in a cafe.
    They called it Cyganeria, the name from the cafe--
    Cyganeria.
    You know what is Cyganeria--
    like for us, in English, gypsy.
    And they kill 10 high officers from the army.
    This was a cafe where the army officers come together.
    Where was it?
    In Kraków.
    In Kraków.
    In this time, there come big arrest
    from youths in the ghetto.
    One from this wrote those poems, was Yitzhak Zuckerman.
    He was a founder from the kibbutz Lohamei ghettos--
    the ghettos.
    He was in the Warsaw uprising, ghetto uprising, he was.
    He in this time was--
    Wounded?
    Wounded in the leg by this.
    He was.
    Because they shot, but he get away, he ran away.
    This was big arrest in this time.
    And the old people, they shot.
    A lot from the youths.
    This was in the end for 19--
    The end of 1942.
    Yeah, this was in the end from 1942.
    And this time was again a selection.
    This was in October, 28th.
    I was living with the two families.
    Not with this German Jew gentleman.
    He was in this time not employed in the--
    by the Gestapo.
    In the Gestapo, he fired, they give him
    recommendation to be a policeman in the ghetto.
    He helped me a lot I think.
    In the night, we hear something is going on.
    We hear they come.
    They took out people from the apartments.
    In the night, he come to us in our apartment.
    And he said, Mr. and Mrs. Grynwald, take what you can,
    like you will stay, not much, and come with me.
    And when somebody will be on the street ask where are you going,
    you are arrested.
    And I provide you to the police command.
    And he provide us to his house.
    And we was hiding over there.
    In this time was the selection by the gate from the ghetto,
    which because the Jewish people was going out
    to work, like me was going out.
    When one man was going out they took him to the transport
    to send him away.
    I'm sorry, I didn't understand the last part.
    When one--
    When one man was only--
    like me-- I was one Jew in my factory.
    I tell you why they did this.
    We was hiding.
    And this day, they sent 7,000 Jews to the railroad, to the--
    In the ghetto, I belonged to a illegal circle,
    in the underground.
    There was over there two brothers.
    Zucker, their name was.
    To his-- their shop, they have a shop, a metal shop.
    I come in--
    I know them because they both buy me wire something.
    And I belonged to this.
    This was over there, belonged.
    I, Mr. Schmaltz, Tislovitz, and Goldberg--
    Alexander Goldberg.
    He was from the underground.
    He was shot by the Gestapo.
    They catched him.
    And over there to the shop for the brothers,
    the Zucker brothers come every time.
    And a famous [INAUDIBLE],, painter--
    Abraham Lehman his name was.
    He was-- he told me that his teacher was Max Liebermann.
    Max Liebermann was a member from the German Academy for Kunst.
    You see?
    I have the picture from this book, from the Abraham Lehman.
    And when this was the selection, on this day, from October 1942,
    he--
    his arm-- he was armed with Mordechai Gebirtig.
    Mordechai Gebirtig was in ghetto.
    He's famous-- he was a carpenter.
    And he was writing songs.
    The song "Es Brent," It's fire--
    [NON-ENGLISH SPEECH].
    This was his-- that's his.
    Now in the whole world they listen to this.
    Sometime on the Jewish radio, you hear his songs--
    "Reyzele."
    He has three daughters.
    He was a folks poet.
    He was more poet than carpenter.
    They, together, went when they provide the transport.
    And they was old.
    And they shot them, when going in the--
    Gebirtig, and then in this day together.
    And when you say the selection, which the selection was
    taking place at that time?
    28th of October.
    Correct.
    19--
    But were they liquidating the ghetto on that day?
    No, no, no, no, no--
    1942.
    Correct.
    After this happened, in this day the brother, Zuckers.
    Why did they shoot that day?
    They shoot a lot of people.
    I know, but that day?
    They shoot-- the two brothers lose their wives.
    They went with the kids.
    They don't want leave the kids.
    They went with the kids in the transport.
    The men both back to work in a factory.
    They were saved.
    And some wives, some people--
    the men was in the--
    by the work.
    And they won't leave.
    They write a piece of paper on the door.
    The writers leave me this, and English,
    like with my dictionary--
    don't grieve about me, about us.
    Take care of yourself.
    This write the women from the Zuckers.
    They went-- one Zucker has two kids and one, one kid.
    I mentioned you before, we was in the underground,
    the illegal circle.
    There was over there Alexander Goldberg.
    After this, I don't remember when, maybe a few weeks,
    maybe three, I don't remember-- two, maybe two, three,
    four weeks--
    he come in the ghetto with a Polish man.
    The Polish man was from the underground.
    The Polish man was in a uniform from the railroad, engineer,
    from work.
    And he told us--
    this was-- the meeting was in the apartment from Zucker.
    And he told us where they take the people.
    They take the people by the railroad,
    by the Polish engineer to one place.
    Then the Polish engineer has to go out.
    And a German take this.
    And they go with them in the forest.
    Over there, we don't know what this is.
    Nobody come out.
    This was the information what we had.
    We didn't know all this time that is gas chambers.
    In the end from 1942, we didn't know.
    This was not believable.
    Later, maybe three months later, we
    get from the underground this is gas chambers
    and crematoriums in Belzec.
    From Kraków, they took him to Belzec.
    And over there they liquidate all.
    After this 28th of October, my permit was not valid.
    I must say to you, I had a commissar,
    I tell you, a German from Vienna.
    He was an anti Nazi.
    He told me the ghetto is your grave.
    He brought me a gift.
    I bring you weapons if something happens.
    And I ask in my circle, in the underground, what I have to do.
    He want me-- he talk to me so like anti Nazi.
    I don't believe it.
    They said to me, we cannot.
    I said I don't want touch this.
    But this is characteristic.
    I made a mistake.
    I tell you after this.
    When the Russian-- when the Germans, 1941--
    I get back to this time--
    they start the war with the Russians, he disappear.
    In his place come a Ukraine.
    The Ukraine was a [? Romanik-- ?] Stan--
    Not Stanislaw.
    I don't remember it now, what it is.
    [? Romanik ?] was his last name.
    He belonged to the--
    to the Ukraine, what the killed--
    they called the OUN.
    This is the Orhanizatsiya Ukrayins'kykh Natsionalistiv,
    in Polish.
    And this Ukrainian talked also that the Germans lose the war.
    But I keep my mouth shut.
    Because I think this is provocative statement.
    And he told me, Mr. Grynwald, I was in Kiev by Babi Yar,
    where they shoot 70,000 Jews, they shoot over there.
    I was standing by this.
    He told me this.
    And he was something.
    I don't know.
    Because he bring me a paper from the head quarters
    from the army, weapons, and [INAUDIBLE]..
    This is for the weapons, they had--
    That I am needed in the factory and I am not replaceable.
    This was made.
    But after the 28th of October, this was not valid.
    And I was-- because no Jew can go to work out of the ghetto,
    only with a guard.
    And the guard will go only with 10 Jews,
    not with the one Jew special.
    Because this-- I was one Jew.
    I cannot go out.
    You have the answer now why.
    But I must work because in ghetto you cannot--
    when you have not work, you have not the right to live.
    I went to a shop.
    And I work in a shop in the ghetto.
    Till the 13 of March 1943.
    It's Saturday.
    This was the 13th of March.
    There was-- 9:00 in the morning was a notice in the whole
    ghetto from the Judenrat that we have--
    11:00 we have to stay on this and this place by the gate
    in line, five, and over there to go out to Plaszów.
    In this time was they murdered the whole hospital.
    They murdered the sick people.
    From the epidemic hospital in the ghetto
    the doctor said to the people, run away.
    Where do you go?
    They run away in their underclothes.
    Many people went through the tunnels, through the sewers,
    but to the Vistula.
    Kraków is by the Vistula, the river.
    And in the beginning they was going out.
    But then the Germans was learning
    and who come over there, they shot.
    One from the-- a woman doctor was going through this way
    and she broke her legs.
    Then they took her back to the Jewish hospital in the ghetto.
    I said this episode what was.
    All sick people, what can go out, they ran away.
    And she was not coming.
    Then a younger doctor, a woman, Dr. Blau, was staying by her.
    They come there, the SS man.
    His name was Hujar.
    And told to her to lay down.
    And he want a shot.
    They shot here mostly, in the neck.
    And she said to him, I can look on you when you shoot me.
    I have not to tell.
    And he shot her right in the face.
    [INAUDIBLE] is this-- the woman who broke the leg, the Dr. --
    I'm unable to remember the name--
    was living after this.
    And she, Dr. Blau was shot.
    We came to Plaszów to the barracks.
    Over there was-- the head from Plaszów was Amon Goeth,
    was the commandant.
    He shot right and left.
    He was brutal.
    I work in the technical--
    in the mechanical barracks, I work.
    Over there was maybe 500 citizens --
    mechanical.
    We know everything what they needed.
    Around the-- around the lager was the towers where
    the Ukrainians were staying.
    And I and an other man was from the mechanical to give--
    to take care on the light--
    For the towers.
    --and the projectors for them.
    Over there, the projector can go down.
    It can go so on.
    It can go-- right.
    When, every time when the Ukrainian when he come,
    not the one time, he was staying over in the booth in the tower.
    He sung-- he sing songs, Russian songs.
    And this was knowing the Russian songs in lager
    because this was the whole--
    it was the Germans and the Russians.
    This was they call the Vlasovci.
    This is the general Vlasov, who betrayed the Russian front.
    Every day was shooting in lager.
    In Plaszów.
    In Plaszów.
    Every day was beating, not so beating,
    but a beating on the back.
    Must lay on a table, a small table.
    The pants down, they'd be.
    They shoot.
    Over there, you work day shift, from 6:00 to 6:00
    in the evening.
    Then from 6:00 in the evening to 6:00 in the morning.
    They went in the night and looked
    through the barrack what the people work,
    where the people work.
    Were they sewing or something, by the shoemakers.
    And if somebody sleep, they shot him right away.
    This was terrible.
    Some people was going out to factories from--
    From Plaszów.
    From the concentration-- from Plaszów.
    One time come--
    I will not tell you exactly how many.
    This was, I think, 12 people, was from one place.
    They come back and they have bread.
    They hide it because they bring--
    like my wife bring for me a piece of bread.
    She made one pence more a day to get a piece of bread.
    And she bring me.
    Because in the lager it was hunger.
    They took the whole 12 people to the place where they shot them.
    I don't know if I have to tell this.
    One man told me he was over there.
    When they shot him, they shot him in this ear.
    They shot him in this ear.
    They want him shot here.
    They shoot him in this ear.
    He fall down.
    Then in the night, he come out.
    Went over there.
    This was from the hole.
    And he come to the barrack where I work in the night.
    And we give him clothes.
    And he said he saw the Ukrainian, what was
    doing to guard the dead people.
    Over there was one woman, she was shot.
    He went to this woman and he wrapped her up, a dead woman.
    So --
    This was--
    You want to take a drink of water?
    Water, yes.
    I will drink because I am dry.
    On November, I don't remember the day,
    was a selection in our barrack for the mechanics.
    And they sent to Szczyglow, another lager
    where they made granites or there.
    Over there was the trinitrate The trinitr -- they call this.
    This is the chemical, what is-- from the dynamite,
    the people become [NON-ENGLISH],, yellow.
    Right.
    I was choose to stay because I was on the--
    in the mechanical-- the first, from the category one.
    There was category one, category two, helpers.
    Category three, this was like students,
    where they learned this.
    And category four was the old people,
    what they were sitting already.
    And we worked for them to cover them.
    Because I was from the category one, from the special,
    like a technic, I was on the one, I was chosen to stay.
    So I was staying.
    This was end 1943.
    I was, 1944.
    They send to other, over to another.
    I was staying in the work.
    1944, in-- in August, I think, 7--
    I don't remember--
    7.
    They took us, made a selection and they send us to Mauthausen.
    We went--
    You had been separated from your wife for the entire time when
    you were in Plaszów.
    Yes, this time I was every day.
    In Plaszów, we was-- we see--
    Different barracks.
    --each another because this was barbed wire only between
    the women lager and between the--
    Over there, I was sent to Mauthausen.
    In the last minute, my wife come-- when I was--
    Ready.
    --to walk away, she come to me.
    Give me your picture.
    I had my book, like a passport.
    I give her this.
    And I said to her, when we leave,
    you have to come to Kraków, to the factory,
    or to Zawierce to your family, or to our family, to Bedzin.
    And I went.
    And we went over there.
    We have no water.
    96 people was in our wagon.
    This was a wagon for six horses.
    On the way to Mauthausen.
    And 96 people was.
    Two people died.
    When we come to Mauthausen, we was 6,000 Jews,
    they took from Plaszów to Mauthausen.
    In Mauthausen I work in the [NON-ENGLISH],, the stones.
    In the quarry?
    In the stones.
    Over there in the stones were Spanish people
    from the civil war, from Spain, what they took them.
    The Germans took over what was in French lagers,
    they took them.
    And they worked.
    And we Jews only took on our shoulders the stones
    and was going.
    Over there was, they called the Wiener Graben,
    to go down 164 stairs.
    And we go so maybe 500 down and 500 up.
    Mostly the SS men come to a man.
    He was big.
    He said, why you took so small stone?
    He said I cannot find.
    Because they-- hurry, hurry.
    And this was over there in the ground.
    The SS man-- you must take this--
    these stones.
    He said, come, I show you that this--
    and he provide him near the edge.
    And then he kicked him and he fall down.
    And they call this paratrooper, [INAUDIBLE]..
    They killed.
    When I was over there I saw people fall down
    and all blood on the stone.
    Because this was like a--
    [INAUDIBLE]
    This was some 80 meters.
    This is-- three times--
    240 foot deep, this was.
    I one time think that I was finished also.
    This was on a Saturday.
    They give me so a big stone.
    I cannot move this.
    And the SS man told to the Spanish,
    give him on his shoulder.
    Two people cannot lift this.
    Then three come.
    They lift and they give me this.
    I come to this. and the SS man that was over there, higher,
    said me, in German, you fool, why you took so heavy stone?
    I didn't answer because it's better not to answer.
    Over there, you saw, in lager, have the mouth closed,
    the eyes open.
    But the French people, they helped me.
    And the way we was going, we was going 5 kilometers
    to the place where you throw--
    I throw this.
    And I took right away another.
    I throw the other, I took a smaller.
    So I come out.
    After three weeks, although I am not tall,
    and I was every time in the front.
    By the gate where you go out, the SS man said to the couple,
    you have to report me to any less.
    This mean this-- twenty people, less
    has to come back from the work and the rest have to be killed.
    They killed the people with sticks.
    Over there I was four weeks.
    Then they send me to St. Valentin.
    Over there I work in a factory.
    What they made, 16 tanks every day were out.
    I have over there good work.
    Because they examined me.
    They have the papers that I am a technic.
    And they examined me at the blueprint, if I can read.
    And I read.
    And they give me measures for the size.
    This is the-- of [INAUDIBLE] to measure.
    And I was-- they call me machine and controller,
    machine control.
    And I work over there.
    Till they bombed one time They bombed the second time.
    Then this was in February.
    They made over these infections.
    February 194--
    1945.
    They made these infections.
    We were staying the whole night over there in the forest,
    naked.
    Because the barracks was closed over there.
    They cleaned from the lice.
    We was squeezed.
    And over there, after this we was 600 Jews.
    We was sent from this Plaszów lager to Mauthausen.
    From Mauthausen to St. Valentin.
    Then come other nationality too--
    Russians, Hollanders, Yugoslavs, Germans, Czechoslovaks,
    to the lager to St. Valentin.
    We built this lager, the Jews.
    After this, many people become sick, pneumonia, and they died.
    On the 13th of April, they evacuate our larger.
    And this was from the 600 Jews, 140.
    Our barrack, the Jewish barrack, I know this was 140.
    You went by car.
    Because the railroad was bombed out.
    We was on the railroad.
    They took us back.
    And we went with buses to Ebensee.
    This is near some--
    near Italy-- can't say it.
    Over there in the Alps, by the Alps.
    We went over there.
    Over there was very bad.
    This was April, the end from the war.
    We didn't know what happened.
    But is outside the whole time.
    [INAUDIBLE]
    On the 6th of May, the German--
    the American army come in.
    The Germans--
    To where you were in Italy?
    I was-- no, in Austria.
    This is Austria.
    Yeah, but the American army--
    I don't know from where they come.
    They come from maybe from Italy, from this side.
    I hope so.
    The Germans, the SS, want us put on the stalls.
    This was-- over there was factories
    inside the mountain, what the prisoners built.
    They want put us over there.
    And then give a locomotive, from the railroad.
    The railroad was inside, machines.
    And with dynamite, it would build up,
    then we will be killed.
    But six SS men said no, we don't do this.
    And they save our life.
    For this, when the Americans come,
    the lager committees was front of the line,
    they took under their protect--
    to protect them.
    Those six SS men.
    This was on the 6th of May, they come, the tanks,
    the American tanks.
    But on the 6th of May, where were you?
    You were--
    In Ebensee.
    Right, which you said was in the Alps.
    This was --
    Salzburg.
    Not far from Salzburg.
    And on the 6th of May the American troops came.
    Came and they liberated us.
    In 1945.
    Right.
    When they came, what was the reaction?
    I mean, you had no--
    you knew the war was coming to an end.
    You heard there was--
    I know that they we are liberated.
    All people, I saw, I like to observe, I observed--
    a young man, a French--
    I understand a little French--
    hit the one kapo man.
    And he said, that is por Raymond.
    For Raymond.
    Por is for.
    Yeah.
    You have this for Raymond, for Henry,
    for name, for name what you killed.
    I saw this.
    A young man, but he is right.
    Over there, the people took revenge
    on the oppressors what the collaborated with the Germans.
    They was prisoners, but they collaborated with the Germans.
    On the 7th, the people breaked in the magazines.
    And they took bread.
    This was from the bakery.
    We have bread.
    On the 7th, we four Jews, we said it's not to stay here.
    We have-- I was still able to--
    we was able to walk.
    We walked out from the concentration camp.
    What kind of contact did you have with the Americans?
    Did they say anything to you?
    Did you personally speak to them?
    Who knows English?
    They stayed and they looked on us by the tank.
    And then--
    Two tanks was coming.
    --you just walked out.
    It come an officer or something.
    He only make pictures.
    Right.
    And the next day, Sunday, in the morning, we went--
    and you have no time.
    No, we have a few more minutes.
    A few minutes.
    It's still an hour to say.
    We walked six week till we came to Poland back.
    I want you to come back, but I want you to tell me--
    tell me-- tell me what happened.
    You went back to Poland.
    How did you get to Poland?
    We was walking together, four Jews.
    And it took you six weeks to get to Poland.
    Six weeks it took.
    You were going back.
    You had made an agreement with your wife
    that you were going to meet.
    I was looking for the family, everybody.
    Of course.
    We didn't know that something so terrible happened.
    And how were you able to find your--
    I think when I lived through the horrible time,
    my brothers was younger than me, than some brothers.
    I had-- the youngest brothers-- was two brothers are twins.
    But they was young.
    They was 15 years.
    They went to Auschwitz, twins.
    But I count that my brothers, because my brothers was
    ever so work men, like.
    They have-- one was also a technic.
    I think that they--
    are living.
    But one brother-- after the war, I said,
    there he was in the army.
    He come back.
    He run away from the prisoner of war.
    He ran away from the Germans.
    He made sabotage.
    He belonged to underground in ghetto in Bedzin.
    And they catched him.
    And a Pole told me after the war that he
    was in prison with my brother.
    And in November 1943, he was beheaded.
    He was before a court.
    And they sentenced him to death by beheading his head.
    And he was beheaded on the prison yard.
    I went back to Poland.
    I come to Bedzin because this was near.
    I come back.
    I went to the factory where my parents live.
    The director from the factory said nobody come home
    from your family.
    He said, you cannot stay here.
    4 o'clock he closed the office.
    He said Mr. Grynwald, you must go.
    Go over there.
    In the town is a committee, a Jewish committee.
    Go over there.
    He said this all belongs now to the government.
    This was.
    I went to the committee.
    I met over there people, friends.
    They took me to sleep, where I had no sleep.
    They give me a paper to go to the restaurant
    a meal, for a soup.
    Then this was Friday.
    Sunday, I went to the town Zawierce
    to hear where the family was.
    I hear that somebody is living, somebody saw somebody, said.
    Then from Zawierce from Zawierce to Bedzin
    is a half hour by railroad.
    And that took a whole day.
    Then I went back to Bedzin.
    From Bedzin in one day I went to Kraków.
    I come.
    This also took one--
    this is from-- from Bedzin to Kraków is two hours by train.
    And this took me around.
    I must go where the bridge was broken from the war.
    I come back.
    In June, I come back to Bedzin.
    I come back in the night to Kraków.
    I must stay the whole night because this was a curfew.
    And I went over there to the factory.
    This was also very --
    They took over, the government took over.
    And I went to where I lived.
    I met over there a friend.
    And they told me that this and this girl
    bring to us a letter from your wife.
    Then I know that she is living.
    And she write in this letter that she is in the hospital.
    And when she will recover, she come back.
    And she ask for me.
    In this time, come transports from the prisoners
    from the concentration camp in two places.
    To Katowice and to Kraków distant.
    I went from one station.
    I stay in Katowice.
    She's not coming.
    I went to Kraków.
    She is not coming.
    And she writes she come.
    I don't want to go to Czechoslovakia over there.
    Because we can meet.
    Then one time, I was in Kraków.
    This was maybe a month later, two months later.
    And I was by this man, a friend.
    He has the cut wood, a wood mill, a saw.
    Saw.
    Saw --
    And one time in the morning, somebody knocked.
    And I hear--
    I didn't open the door.
    I sleep in the kitchen.
    Because the owner has to open.
    And I hear-- he said I have a present for you.
    And I recognized her voice.
    And I stand up.
    And we meet in this time.
    Then come her brother.
    One brother, he was also in Auschwitz, in Bergen-Belsen.
    You told me one thing about your wife before.
    When she was with a number of people who were dead.
    When they bring her from Raguhn--
    Raguhn was by Dessau in Germany.
    This is not north, like she says.
    But this is near Leipzig.
    This is south, East Germany, now is this.
    And she was swollen from hunger.
    She didn't eat.
    And they took her off from the wagon.
    This was open wagons, from coal wagons, open, not ceilings.
    The dead people they throw out on the railroad.
    But she was half dead.
    But a friend keep her.
    And they come over there to Theresienstadt.
    They put her in the morgue between the dead people.
    Then come in a doctor, a woman.
    She also was a prisoner in Theresienstadt.
    And she looked under--
    expect only to see so many dead.
    And she saw-- she said, oh, this woman opened her eyes.
    She is still living.
    And she put out to the other, we take her to the hospital.
    She took her to the hospital.
    And they cut off her--
    the old shoes from wood.
    The shoes, the dresses, everything, because she was--
    and she started to give water with sugar,
    like a small baby, slow, slow.
    And then she put a piece of sugar, tablet sugar,
    where she was lying.
    And she just sucked the sugar.
    And so she come back to life.
    The woman doctor went home after two weeks or something.
    She give her-- the Russians was coming.
    On the 9th of-- on the 9th of May, the Russians,
    they liberate in Czechoslovakia over there.
    Then she give my wife under the protection from a Russian woman
    doctor.
    And said, here is a woman and tell the story, what is.
    She only needed to come back.
    And by the Russians is a slogan, [RUSSIAN]..
    This mean when you don't work, you have not the right to eat.
    And this tell her--
    a man from the Russians.
    And my wife said give me something to work.
    They give her in the kitchen.
    She peeled potatoes.
    She washed the dishes.
    And they give her-- and the meister-- cook meister,
    the kitchen meister said to her-- she understand Russian--
    said to her, what I can do for you, what I can cook?
    You don't want eat this?
    Because in the Russian--
    from the higher officers, they eat fat.
    And she don't want eat fat.
    She know that-- she come from a family from doctors
    and she know that this fat, she will lose after so hunger.
    She has shrink everything.
    Then she said, give me a little farine,
    I will cook this myself.
    He give her farine and she cooked
    herself farine with water.
    And so she come to the power.
    She's back.
    And the friends that was with her the whole time
    from the ghetto till the liberating was waiting for her,
    she would be able to go to home.
    And [INAUDIBLE] she come home.
    I want to ask you just very quickly,
    you stayed in Poland until what year?
    To 1961.
    Till 1961.
    You will think why?
    I was provide in the court about getting my factory back.
    Getting-- but I lose in 1949.
    This was by the Supreme Court.
    Because this was a law that 30 people, over 30 people,
    they take off the government.
    Less, I can go.
    My father's factory I cannot get because this was over 30
    people.
    My factory was smaller.
    This was not 30 people.
    Then I fight.
    But this was a law, paragraph 24.
    When it's something what is needed for the government,
    it's not different how many people work.
    And they made this paragraph and I lose.
    Then I start for myself.
    Because in this time, they don't give-- in 1949,
    this was in the end, 1949-1950, they
    don't give me to go out from Poland.
    I made application to go out.
    They refused me.
    In 1950, then--
    Why did they refuse you?
    Do you know?
    They refused.
    Then they come-- in 1950, they said to me,
    you have to go to work--
    not to work for your private, to be an owner, a capitalist.
    Then we're not-- you have to go out
    from this apartment from the city.
    I went to work.
    They want me give to work in my father's factory,
    to provide this factory.
    I refuse.
    I said, I don't want it.
    Because you can said I do something bad or something.
    Give me other work.
    They give me other work.
    They give me in the headquarter from the wire industry.
    Over there, 40-- we have--
    the concern 40 factories under our concern.
    So it's truly amazing that you went back to Poland,
    you stayed in Poland, and then when you
    wanted to leave Poland again--
    In 1956 was a change in Poland.
    That's correct.
    Gomulka was over.
    I made application to go out.
    They refused me.
    I made an application to the ministry, the state.
    Are these applications to exit from Poland?
    The applications--
    To come to the United States?
    No, to go out to Israel.
    To go to Israel.
    Because this was not allowed--
    United States.
    This was the Cold War in this time.
    This was worse than Israel.
    Then I get from the ministry--
    I just-- I want to ask you just one thing.
    Because we're going to come back,
    I hope, another time and discuss some of your experiences
    in Poland.
    I just want to know how it felt after so many years,
    you went through the camps, et cetera,
    and you were liberated, back in Poland,
    when you wanted to leave Poland, you couldn't leave.
    It was again a period of being not in control of your own--
    your freedom, liberty.
    I had trouble in Poland too.
    I was in the prison in Poland too.
    This I would like to talk about with you.
    I would like to come back.
    OK?
    OK.
    Thank you.

    Overview

    Interview Summary
    Aron Grynwald, born on June 21, 1904 in Bedzin, Poland, discusses his pre-war life in Bedzin; attending a technical school in Wroclaw, Poland; his marriage, in 1939, to Gitla Grynwald; numerous cases of antisemitism in Poland; hiding in 1939 on a farm in Poland; his time in the Kraków ghetto; prominent members of the Kraków Judenrat; anti-Jewish laws imposed in 1939; having to wear a Jewish star; the confiscation of his Kraków factory by a Viennese man in 1949; his time working in this factory from 1940 until October 8, 1942 on a special work permit from the German Labor Department; his contact with family members in the Warsaw ghetto; escaping the June 3, 1942 selection of 6,000 Jews in the Kraków ghetto because of his special work permit; hiding with his wife, Gitla, to escape another selection, of 7,000 Jews from the Kraków ghetto on October 28, 1942; working in the Kraków ghetto from October 8, 1942 until March 13, 1943 after his special work permit expired; being transported to Płaszów concentration camp on March 13, 1942; his memories of Amon Goeth, the Commandant of Płaszów concentration camp; being transported to Mauthausen concentration camp in August 1944; forced labor in Mauthausen; the SS and the Gestapo officers in Mauthausen; being transported to Ebensee concentration camp in Austria in April 13, 1945; his liberation by American troops from Ebensee on May 6, 1945; returning to Kraków after liberation; his wife's time in Terezin (Theresienstadt) concentration camp; the communist leadership of Wladyslaw Gomulka in Poland after World War II; and his time in the United States after 1961. Also contains a photograph of Aron Grynwald in 1940, one of him recent to the time of the interview, and one of him and his wife, Gitla, recent to the time of the interview.
    Interviewee
    Mr. Aron Grynwald
    Interviewer
    Sidney Langer
    Date
    interview:  1984
    Credit Line
    United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Collection, Gift of the Holocaust Resource Center at Kean University

    Physical Details

    Language
    English
    Extent
    2 videocassettes (VHS) : sound, color ; 1/2 in..

    Rights & Restrictions

    Conditions on Access
    There are no known restrictions on access to this material.
    Conditions on Use
    No restrictions on use

    Copyright Holder
    The Holocaust Resource Center at Kean University

    Keywords & Subjects

    Administrative Notes

    Legal Status
    Permanent Collection
    Provenance
    The interview was donated to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum along with other interviews between 1993 - 1997 by the Holocaust Resource Center at Kean College (now Kean University).
    Record last modified:
    2023-11-16 07:56:36
    This page:
    https:​/​/collections.ushmm.org​/search​/catalog​/irn504876

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    Time Coded Notes (3)

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    Oral history interview with Rae Kushner

    Oral History

    Rae Kushner, born on February 27, 1923 in Novogrudok, Poland (Navahrudak, Belarus), discusses her childhood community of Novogrudok; her family's middle class life style; her father's fur business; the Russian occupation in 1939; the Russian deportation of wealthy families to Siberia; her memories of Jewish parents hiding children to protect them from deportation; her memories of the German occupation in 1941; her memories of the establishment of a ghetto in a suburb of Novogrudok by the Germans; her recollection of the number of Jews (350 of the original 30,000) who survived the ghetto; the murder of her mother; the digging of an escape tunnel in the ghetto by 70 young men and her brother, Chonon; her brother getting lost after leaving the tunnel; her family joining a partisan group led by Tuvia Bielski; living in a forest for nine months; fleeing to Czechoslovakia at the end of the war; her marriage in Hungary; her memories of secretly crossing the Italian border; life in a displaced persons camp in Italy; her family's journey to the United States in 1949; and her reflections on the role of the United States and other counties in preventing Jewish immigration from Europe before, during, and after the war.

    Oral history interview with Mayer Lief

    Oral history interview with Mayer Lief

    Oral History

    Mayer Lief, born August 18, 1908 in Lemberg, Galicia (Lʹviv, Ukraine), discusses his childhood; his schooling in Lemberg; experiencing antisemitism; his experiences in the Polish Army; his family's attempts to emigrate from Poland to the United States in 1939; the Russian occupation of Lemberg and Eastern Poland in 1939; the German invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, and Mayer's capture that same day; digging mass graves for the Germans; the issuing of armbands and the establishment of the ghetto in Lemberg by the Germans; living in the ghetto beginning in November 1941; his move to and stay at German Army facilities until June 1943 due to his skills as a locksmith and safe cracker; his imprisonment in Janowska concentration camp in Ukraine in June 1943 and his eventual escape from the camp; his purchase of false papers in August 1943 in order to avoid capture by the Germans; his life in a suburb of Lemberg until the liberation by the Russians in 1944; traveling to Poland in 1946; his time in a displaced persons camp in Germany around 1946; immigrating to the United States in 1949; his time in Boston, MA and New York; arriving in Elizabeth, NJ and reuniting with his mother; his marriage in 1954; and his work since his arrival in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Isak Levenstein

    Oral history interview with Isak Levenstein

    Oral History

    Isak Levenstein discusses his childhood in a town near Lublin, Poland; moving to Kraków, Poland to live with his uncle after his parents' deaths; his education in Kraków; his work as the owner of a pots and pans factory; getting married on December 29, 1931; the size and professions of the Jewish population in Kraków; his membership in Mizrachi and Hechalutz Zionist organizations; antisemitism in Kraków in the mid-1930s; the banning of ritual slaughter in Kraków; Polish collaboration with the Nazis; the murdering of 1.2 million children by the Nazis during the Holocaust; the saving of Jews by very few Poles; the hiding of his wife's family in a bunker near Kraków and their eventual murder; his and his wife's move into the Kraków ghetto in 1941; his memories of the instructions given to the Judenrat by the Nazis; the deportation of Jews from Kraków to Treblinka and Auschwitz concentration camps; his memories of Jewish religious observances in the ghetto; his time in hiding in order to escape selections; a comprehensive round-up that took place in the ghetto in 1943 and the hiding of his family in a bunker during the roundup; his imprisonment in Płaszów concentration camp; his effort to save his family by bribing a German commander; the hiding of his children in the bunks of Płaszów concentration camp for 14 months; his inability to save his children; his qualifications as a metal worker; his time in Oskar Schindler's Gross-Rosen and Brünnlitz factories; his memories of Oskar Schindler; his wife's time in Auschwitz and Bergen-Belsen concentration camps; his and his wife's search for relatives after the war; his thoughts on the differences between the Poles and the Czechs after the war; his and his wife's visit to Theresienstadt concentration camp; his separation from his wife between October of 1944 and August of 1945; their immigration to the United States after World War II; visiting Israel 25 times; and starting of a construction company with two other Schindler Jews in New Jersey.

    Oral history interview with Sally Levenstein

    Oral history interview with Sally Levenstein

    Oral History

    Sally Levenstein, born in 1909, discusses her childhood in Kazimierza Wielka, Poland; the Jewish community in Kazimierza Wielka; the death of her father in 1918; her education in Kazimierza Wielka and in Kraków, Poland; the relationship between the Gentiles and the Jews in Kazimierza Wielka; getting married to Isak Levenstein in 1931 and moving to Kraków; the size and level of religious observance of the Jewish community in Kraków; her social life in Kraków; her involvement with the Jewish National Fund; the birth of her two children in 1932 and in 1937; the start of World War II in 1939; the betrayal of her sister by a Polish neighbor; the arrival of Jews in Poland, deported from Germany; the establishment of the Kraków ghetto; her work in a factory making stockings for German soldiers; her memories of selections that took place in the ghetto; the Judenrat and the Jewish police in the ghetto; the establishment of Płaszów concentration camp in 1942; the liquidation of the Kraków ghetto in 1943; hiding in a bunker with her children for 70 days near Kraków; her husband's imprisonment at Płaszów concentration camp; her memories of searching for food for her children while in hiding; her husband's smuggling of the children into Płaszów to be with him; her time hiding in the factory where she worked; her voluntary movement to Płaszów concentration camp to be with her family; the help that she received for her children from Mrs. Rosner; the roundup of all the children in Płaszów; her and her husband's inability to save their own children; the move of her husband and other family members by Oskar Schindler to his Brünnlitz factory in Czechoslovakia; her deportation to and time in Birkenau concentration camp; her memories of selections by Dr. Josef Mengele for the gas chamber; her aimless work while she was imprisoned in Birkenau; Dr. Menegle's experiments on inmates in Auschwitz; her transfer from Birkenau to Auschwitz; being in a death march to Bergen-Belsen concentration camp and the shooting of those prisoners who stopped marching; her experiences in Bergen-Belsen and her bout with typhus while in the camp; her time in a hospital during the time of liberation; the death of inmates from over-eating after liberation; an invitation to the survivors by the Queen of Portugal to come to Portugal after World War II; her search for her family after the war; her reunion with her husband in Kraków and their return to their apartment there; the help that they received from the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Agency; their time in Vienna, Austria and in Bindermichl displaced persons camp; the birth of her daughter in Bindermichl; her family's immigration to the United States in 1949; their life in New York and their move to New Jersey where her husband started a construction company; and her reflections on the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Manya Mandelbaum

    Oral history interview with Manya Mandelbaum

    Oral History

    Manya Mandelbaum, on August 16, 1919, discusses her childhood in Debica and Kraków, Poland; the Jews' relationship with the Poles inside and outside of Kraków; antisemitism in Poland in the late 1930s; the start of World War II in 1939 and her memories of radio announcements urging the Jews to flee from Poland; her attempted escape east to Russia in 1939; the German bombings that forced her to return to Kraków; the anti-Jewish laws and Nazi proclamations in Kraków; her time in the Kraków ghetto; her marriage to Simon Mandelbaum in 1940; the deportation of her parents in 1940; her movement to Płaszów concentration camp; the gassing of children in Auschwitz concentration camp; her work for the Madritsch firm making blouses (Julius Madritsch’s factory in Płaszów); the deportation of Jews to Mauthausen and Auschwitz concentration camps; the shooting of her brother in 1945; her deportation to Auschwitz and the conditions there; her transport to Hamburg, Germany, in January 1945 to work in a plastic factory and a beating she received from a German guard there; her observance of Passover in the camp; her escape from the factory with four other girls and the help that they received from some Poles; the arrival of British and American soldiers in April 1945; her time in Bitterfeld, Germany and in Prague, Czech Republic after the war; her travel to a hospital in Wels, Austria to find her husband; her reunion with her husband in Poland; the help that they received from the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration; their immigration to the United States in 1949; their life after the war in Brooklyn, NY and Elizabeth and Hillside, NJ; her ability to talk about the Holocaust with her children and grandchildren; and her love for the United States and Israel.

    Oral history interview with Allen Moskowitz

    Oral history interview with Allen Moskowitz

    Oral History

    Allen Moskowitz, born on March 27, 1923, discusses his childhood in Brusnica, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia); his family's move to Svidnicka, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia) in 1937; his time in Yeshiva in Šurany, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia) in 1939; his move back to Svidnicka at the outbreak of World War II in 1939; his parents' distrust of the Germans; antisemitism in Czechoslovakia; his family's obtaining false papers and hiding in Czechoslovakia; the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1944; his mother's hiding with a Gentile family who subsequently forced her to leave; his capture by the Gestapo in 1944; his imprisonment in Sered concentration camp as a Mischlinge; his interaction with Nazi Commandant Alois Brunner; his mother's work as a cook at an inn; his transport to Sachsenhausen concentration camp in 1943 and his subsequent march to Heinkel concentration camp; his march to Siemensstadt concentration camp; his transfer to Ohrdruf concentration camp; a beating he received in Ohrdruf; his ongoing belief in God and religion; the morning roll calls in Ohrdruf; the Kapos in Ohrdruf; his march to Crawinkel concentration camp; the shooting of prisoners on their way from Crawinkel to Buchenwald concentration camp; falling ill with typhus; the liberation of Buchenwald by the Americans; his return to his home town and his reunion with surviving members of his family; his discovery of the fate of his father and 14 year old brother; his family's immigration to France and then to Palestine at the end of World War II; his later immigration to the United States via France after World War II; the role of Rabbi Michael Dov Weissmandel, his rabbi and “hero of the Holocaust”; the fate of his extended family members during the Holocaust; his life in Brooklyn, NY; his marriage and his life in Elizabeth, NJ; his decision not to talk about the Holocaust with his family; his feelings towards the Germans in World War II; and his thoughts on what can be learned from the Holocaust. Also contains a photograph of Allen in 1946 and a photograph of him in 1993.

    Oral history interview with Sonya Oshman

    Oral history interview with Sonya Oshman

    Oral History

    Sonya Oshman, born on December 17, 1922, discusses her childhood in Novogrudok, Poland (now Navahrudak, Belarus); growing up in a wealthy family; her family's near deportation to Serbia by the Russians; her Polish neighbors being sometimes helpful and sometimes antisemitic; her sister's death in a German bombing raid; the elderly and the very young being murdered first; young people being used in forced labor; her memories of her father before his death in a concentration camp; her family's escape from a ghetto through a tunnel; the "Aktion" in the ghetto following their escape; her brother's immigration to Israel following liberation; her five years in a displaced persons camp in Italy; and her move to the United States with her husband in 1950. Also contains two photographs of Sonya (one is dated June 1988 and the other is undated).

    Oral history interview with Liesel Mayerfeld

    Oral history interview with Liesel Mayerfeld

    Oral History

    Liesel Mayerfeld, born in 1933, discusses her early childhood in Frankfurt, Germany; her memories of pre-war life in Frankfurt; her memories of Kristallnacht in November 1938; her father's deportation to Buchenwald concentration camp during Kristallnacht; her move to the Netherlands with her sister following Kristallnacht; her life in the Netherlands with her uncle; her mother's work to get her father released from Buchenwald; her father's release from Buchenwald; her father's travel to England in July 1939; her mother's travel with an infant son to England in August 1939; moving to England in January of 1940; her family's move to Detroit, MI in 1940; her reaction to American culture and the English language; her brother's move to Israel; and her current life in Elizabeth, NJ.

    Oral history interview with Lisa Reibel

    Oral history interview with Lisa Reibel

    Oral History

    Lisa Reibel, born in 1930, discusses her childhood in Novogrudok, Poland (now Navahrudak, Belarus); her memories of her siblings, specifically her sister, Rae Kushner; her memories of the Russian occupation in 1939; the German occupation of 1941; the thriving Jewish community in Novogrudok; her reaction to her sister's murder; the murder of 5,000 Jews in December 1941; her plan to dig an escape tunnel out of the Novogrudok ghetto; crawling through the tunnel at night; hiding in bushes, barns, and underground bunkers; Tuvia Bielski's partisans; liberation by the Russians in 1945; her time in a displaced persons camp in Italy; her move to the United States in 1949; and her life in Brooklyn, NY, and in Elizabeth, NJ. Also contains photographs of Lisa Reibel in 1994 and one of her at an earlier date.

    Oral history interview with Paul Schmelzer

    Oral history interview with Paul Schmelzer

    Oral History

    Paul Schmelzer, born September 3, 1916 in Gwoździec, Poland (Hvizdets', Ukraine), discusses his life before World War II; antisemitism in Poland; his time serving in the Polish Army from 1937 until 1939; being a prisoner of war in 1939; living in the Gwoździec ghetto; his time in the ghetto in Kolomyya (Kolomyia), Ukraine; being in numerous slave labor camps in Ukraine; his numerous escapes from the Germans throughout the war years; meeting his wife, Susan, in Tolstoye (Tovste), Ukraine, in 1941; hiding in the homes of many different Polish farmers; moving to Chernivtsi, Ukraine before liberation; his time in various displaced persons camps administered by the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration in Germany and Czechoslovakia; moving to the United States with his wife and son in 1949; living in Bronx, NY from 1949 until 1970; and moving to Elizabeth, NJ in 1970. Also contains a photograph of Paul Schmelzer in 1988.

    Oral history interview with Susan Schmelzer

    Oral history interview with Susan Schmelzer

    Oral History

    Susan Schmelzer, born on February 23, 1923, discusses her childhood in Zaleshchiki, Poland (Ukraine); antisemitism in Zaleshchiki; the Russian occupation of Zaleshchiki from 1939 until 1942; the German occupation of Zaleshchiki in 1942; the mass murder of 2,000 Jews from Zaleshchiki in November 1942; her secular, public school education; moving from Zaleshchiki in order to continue her education; her move with her family to the ghetto in Tolstoye (Tovste), Ukraine; performing slave labor in the fields outside of the Tolstoye ghetto in March 1943; meeting her future husband, Paul Schmelzer; the murder of her parents and sister along with 3,000 other Jews from the Tolstoye ghetto; her time hiding with her future husband and a girlfriend until they were liberated by Russians in March; moving with her future husband to Czernowitz (Chernivtsi), Ukraine after liberation; getting married to Paul Schmelzer in Czernowitz; moving to Germany; immigrating with her husband and son to the United States in 1949; and her life in the United States after 1949. Also contains a photograph of Susan Schmelzer in 1987.

    Oral history interview with Adela Sommer

    Oral history interview with Adela Sommer

    Oral History

    Adela Sommer, born in 1923 in Tluste, Poland (now Tovste, Ukraine), discusses her early life in Tluste; her education at Hebrew school; antisemitism in Tluste; relations between Gentiles and Jews in the Tluste area; the German invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941; the attacks against Jews before the Germans arrived in Tluste; the protests against anti-Jewish activities by two local priests; the setting up of a ghetto in Tluste; the restrictions on the movement of the town's Jewish population; the German Aktion of May 27, 1943, during which 3,000 people were killed; the family's construction of a bunker in an old attic; the help of Hungarian soldiers in disguising the crying of a baby hidden in the attic from the Germans; the deliberate introduction of typhus into the Jewish population in order to label them as contaminated and the effects of typhus; her work as a knitter in a neighboring village; the efforts of one German to protect Jews from an Aktion; her work with the sick; the death of her mother on February 17, 1944; the shooting of her sister and her sister's family; her liberation by the Soviets in March of 1944; her work as a bookkeeper in a Romanian brewery; her invitation to a displaced persons camp in Ulm, Germany, by her cousin, the camp's director; going to the displaced persons camp in Ebensee, Austria; going to Föhrenwald displaced persons camp in Germany; the birth of her twins in 1947; her immigration to the United States on March 13, 1951 with the help of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee; and her life in Elizabeth, NJ, and the need for survivors to speak about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Jack Spiegel

    Oral history interview with Jack Spiegel

    Oral History

    Jack Spiegel, born on March 17, 1918, discusses his childhood in Łódź, Poland; his reaction to being the only surviving family member after the Holocaust; his family's life in the ghetto in Warsaw, Poland; smuggling food into the Warsaw ghetto; traveling secretly to Brzeziny, Koluszki, and Opatów, Poland; his reunion with family in the Warsaw ghetto; his deportation to Minsk and then Babruisk (Bobruysk) in Belarus; the Bobruisk concentration camp; the regular Sunday murders at Bobruisk; working in the camp kitchen; his work at Flossenbürg concentration camp; transports between camps; the walk to Dachau concentration camp; working in a V-2 rocket testing tunnel; being liberated by Americans on April 29, 1945; his convalescence in Lyon, France, for eight months; moving to Israel in 1948; immigrating to the United States in 1960; and his life on Staten Island, NY. Also contains a photograph of Jack Speigel and his family in the 1920s.

    Oral history interview with Abraham Zuckerman

    Oral history interview with Abraham Zuckerman

    Oral History

    Abraham Zuckerman discusses his childhood in Kraków, Poland; his memories of Jewish and Gentile relations before World War II; his memories of forced labor in Kraków after the Nazis took over; the establishment of the Kraków ghetto; his memories of rationing in Kraków; his move, with his family, to Dukla, Poland; his transport, with his family, to Biala Podlaska, Poland; his memories of forced labor in Biala Podlaska; his return, with his family, to Dukla; his family's transport to and subsequent dissapearance from Dukla; his transport to the Rzeszów ghetto in Poland; his transport to Plaszów, Poland; his transport to and time in Julag concentration camp in Plaszów, Poland; his work in Schindler's enamel factory, for a year, until Aug. 1944; his memories of Oskar Schindler; his transport from Schindler's factory to Mauthausen concentration camp in Austria; his memories of forced labor in Mauthausen; his transport to and time in Gusen concentration camp in Austria; his liberation by Americans from Gusen on May 5, 1945; his move to Linz, Austria, after liberation; his life in Bindermichl displaced persons camp in Austria from May 1945 until May 1949; his memories of meeting and marrying his wife, Mina, in Bindermichl; his move, with his wife and the first of their three children, to the United States on May 29, 1949; and his life in New Jersey after 1949. Also contains a photograph of Abraham Zuckerman in 1935 and one of him in 1991

    Oral history interview with Paul Gast

    Oral history interview with Paul Gast

    Oral History

    Paul Gast, born in Łódź, Poland on November 16, 1926, discusses his childhood in Łódź; his reaction to being the only survivor in his family after the Holocaust; his father's murder in the 1939 Aktion in Łódź; his move to the Łódź ghetto in 1940; his work in a factory in Łódź; his memories of primitive ghetto conditions; his transport to Auschwitz; his separation from his mother at selection in Auschwitz; his transport to Braunschwieg concentration camp; his memories of Ravensbrück concentration camp; his memories of Watenstedt, a labor camp in Germany; his description of horrible conditions at Ludwigslust concentration camp; seeing Russian soldiers cook human flesh at Ludwigslust; his liberation by American soldiers in May 1945 from Ludwigslust; his move to England in 1945; his education in British schools and universities; moving to New York in 1952; his military service in Korea; his move to Oklahoma; and his life in Verona, NJ.

    Oral history interview with Mina Zuckerman

    Oral history interview with Mina Zuckerman

    Oral History

    Millie (Mina) Zuckerman, born in September 1925, discusses her childhood in Humniska, Poland; the German occupation of Humniska in 1939; the air bombings of local refineries in 1939; her work, from 1939 to 1942, in nearby Brzozów, Poland, carrying stones for roads; being forced to move, along with the rest of the Jewish population from Humniska to Brzozów in 1942; life in Brzozów; her school friend, Helena Kerda; hiding with her father, mother, and older sister in the home of Michalina Kerda, Helena's mother, in Brzozów from 1942 until 1944; her father's secret trade of goods for money with a Polish man named Krekovsky; the liberation of Brzozów in August 1944 by the Russians; moving to Budapest, Hungary with her family in the fall of 1944; receiving food and clothing from the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS) and the Red Cross while in Budapest; her time, with her family, in Bindermichl displaced persons camp in Linz, Austria from May 1945 until 1949; meeting her husband, Abraham Zuckerman, in Bindermichl in 1947. At the conclusion of the interview, Mina Zuckerman invited her friend, Helena Kedra Bocon, to share her memories of Mina's time in hiding in Helena's mother's home in Brzozów, Poland. Also contains a photograph of Mina Zuckerman at age 8 and one of her at the time of the interview.

    Oral History interview with Henry Butensky

    Oral History interview with Henry Butensky

    Oral History

    Henry Butensky, born on August 12, 1922 in Harlem, NY, discusses his childhood in Bronx, NY; how his parents and siblings emigrating from Palestine; his Jewish home; his enlistment in the 71st U.S. Infantry in 1942; his memories of wanting to help his fellow Jews in Europe by fighting in the U.S. Army; his memories of traveling to Europe for battle; his memories of occupying the I.G. Farben factory following the German evacuation; his memories of General Patton's order to capture young Nazi resisters; his memories of Wels II concentration camp; his memories of emaciated prisoners in Wels II; his memories of communicating with a Wels II prisoner in Yiddish; his memories of Straubing labor camp in Germany; his memories of corpses in ditches at Straubing; his time in Gunskirchen concentration camp after liberation; his memories of the bodies of prisoners, who attempted to flee, in the woods around Gunskirchen; and his recollections learning of Auschwitz through a friend after World War II.

    Oral history interview with David Dorfman

    Oral history interview with David Dorfman

    Oral History

    David Dorfman, born on January 22, 1933 in Brussels, Belgium, discusses his childhood in Brussels; crossing the English Channel enroot to Liverpool, England from Antwerp, Belgium; his move to the United States with his father in 1939; his parents' marriage of convenience; his mother's and his siblings' experiences in Gurs concentration camp in 1942; his mother becoming pregnant by a guard in Gurs; his mother receiving permission to leave the camp to give birth to his sister Claudine; his mother escaping along with the newborn Claudine; his mother joining the Maquis French underground group in 1943; his mother's second marriage to an Auschwitz survivor; growing up in New York, NY; his sister's move to the United States from Switzerland in 1947; expressing his Holocaust memories through his art; his mother's death being an inspiration for his art; his artwork of Bergen-Belsen, Chelmno, Nordhausen, Majdanek, and Ravensbrück concentration camps; expressing the human extremes of tenderness and cruelty in his artwork; and his life in Mine Hill, N.J. Also contains photographs of David Dorfman in March 1956 and in 1993.

    Oral history interview with Max Findling

    Oral history interview with Max Findling

    Oral History

    Max Findling, born in Zmigród, Poland on July 28, 1923, discusses his childhood in Zmigród; antisemitism in Zmigród; the formation of a Judenrat in Zmigród in 1940; performing forced labor during the winter of 1941; the Gestapo in Zmigród; his transport from Zmigród to Jaslo, Poland in 1942; his time in prison in Jaslo; being sent to Płaszów concentration camp in July 1942; escaping from Płaszów after two weeks; hiding in Poland; returning to Zmigród and hiding; performing forced labor in Jaslo; his sister's murder with 40 or 50 other prisoners in the forest outside of Warzyce, Poland; being transported from Jaslo to Julag I concentration camp in Płaszów, Poland; his bout with typhus in 1943 while in Julag I; his transport to and time in Jerozolimska concentration camp (most likely part of Płaszów); his brother's death from pneumonia in Skarzysko-Kamienna concentration camp in 1944; his transport to and time in Hasag concentration camp in Czestochowa, Poland; Georg Bartenschlager, a S.S. officer who was in charge of Hasag; being liberated from Hasag by Russians; returning to Zmigród; his time in Bucharest, Romania; his time in Padua, Italy; his time in Israel; his marriage in 1949; immigrating to the United States in 1955; his testimony in a trial in 1972 at the request of the American Jewish Congress in Drawsko Pomorskie, Poland, against Germans accused of killing Jews; and his life in the United States. Also contains a photograph of Max Findling in 1949 and a photograph of him in 1976.

    Oral History interview with Lilly Gottlieb

    Oral History interview with Lilly Gottlieb

    Oral History

    Lilly Gottlieb, born in 1925 in in Vienna, Austria, discusses her childhood in Vienna; her recollections of antisemitism in Vienna; Kristallnacht in 1938; her mother's wool and yarn business; her uncle's deportation to Dachau concentration camp and the return of his ashes in an urn; getting a United States visa; her parents' money in banks in the US; her father's journey to Belgium and going to Belgium later with her mother; living in Antwerp, Belgium and experiencing antisemitism; the German invasion of Belgium; her father's time in St. Cyprien, Les Milles, and Gurs concentration camps; thinking that their escape was an adventure; leaving France for Casablanca, Morocco in 1942; traveling to Cuba via Jamaica in 1942; living in Cuba from 1942 to 1948; marching in solidarity with other Jews in Havana; moving to the United States in 1948; returning to Cuba in 1952; leaving Cuba in 1961 to escape Castro's regime; her recent visits to Vienna; and her life in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Zygmunt Gottlieb

    Oral history interview with Zygmunt Gottlieb

    Oral History

    Zygmunt Gottlieb, born on December 9, 1923 in Kopychyntsi, Ukraine, discusses his childhood in Kopychyntsi; his orthodox upbringing; the poor conditions before World War II in Kopychyntsi; his memories of antisemitism in Ukraine; his memories of the Russian occupation from 1939 to 1941; his memories of the German occupation from 1941 to 1944; his recollections of the Kopychyntsi ghetto; his transport to the Kamionki labor camp; his recollections of 65 survivors of the original 5,000 to 6,000 Jews of Kopychyntsi; his memories of Aktions in Kamionki; his memories of the Ternopol labor camp; his escape during an Aktion; his memories of hiding in the barn of a Polish officer; his memories of hiding with his father and other relatives in an underground bunker; his liberation by the Russians in March 1944; his enlistment in the Soviet Army; his release from the army due to the fact he claimed to be a teacher before the war; his memories of testifying at a Mannheim war crimes trial; his travels to Vienna, Austria and Munich, Germany after the war; and his life in the United States after May 1951.

    Oral history interview with Alice Lefkovic

    Oral history interview with Alice Lefkovic

    Oral History

    Alice Lefkovic, born July 8, 1926, describes her childhood in Brezova Pod Bradlom, Slovakia; the antisemitism that followed Slovakian independence in 1940; her father's deportation to Majdanek concentration camp in 1941; attempting to flee to Hungary, her arrest, and her subsequent release due to the intervention of a mysterious benefactor; eventually arriving in Hungary with the help of a family member; reuniting with family members in Budapest, Hungary; deportations of Jews from Hungary in May 1944; being deported to Sered concentration camp in Czechoslovakia; her subsequent transport to Therensienstadt concentration camp; participating in forced labor while in Theresienstadt; her liberation by the Red Army; her life in Prague, Czech Republic following the war; her immigration to Israel after World War II; and her immigration to the United States in 1967. Includes photographs of Alice Lefkovic in 1947 and 1989.

    Oral history interview with Charles Levine

    Oral history interview with Charles Levine

    Oral History

    Charles Levine, born June 15, 1915 in Augustów, Poland, discusses his childhood; the immigration of his brother to the United States in 1923; being drafted into the Polish Army in 1939 and his wagon trip to the Soviet Union while in the army; his return to Augustów after his military service; his memories of Augustów under Soviet rule; the German invasion of Augustów on June 22, 1941; his time in the Augustów ghetto; his memories of Chaim Mordechai Rumkowski; being deported to Bogusze concentration camp on November 2, 1942 and his memories of the atrocities that took place in Bogusze; the transport of 6,000 Jews to Treblinka concentration camp and their murder there; being sent to Birkenau concentration camp in January 1943; building the crematoria; the killing of 24,000 Jews in the crematoria in Birkenau; the gassing of his sister and parents in Birkenau; receiving a tattooed number 85719 while he was in Birkenau; the extraction of gold from the teeth of dead prisoners; being sent to Gross-Rosen concentration camp in January 1945; a Romani camp in Gross-Rosen; the hanging of an escapee in front of the inmates in Gross-Rosen; being transported to Buchenwald concentration camp in February 1945; doing forced labor in Weimar, Germany; digging graves for German soldiers; being liberated by American soldiers April 13, 1945, and his memories of General Dwight Eisenhower's visit to Buchenwald shortly after liberation; traveling through Europe after liberation; the shooting of one of his friends by a member of the Armia Krajowa; his time in a displaced persons camp in Italy; his marriage in 1947 and his immigration to the United States in 1949; his life in New Jersey; and his personal reflections on the Holocaust. Photographs of Charles Levine in Italy in 1945 and in 1992 accompany the interview.

    Oral history interview with Eva Laks

    Oral history interview with Eva Laks

    Oral History

    Eva Laks, born in Ryki, Poland, on March 10, 1922, describes her family's move to Jankowiec nad Wisla, Poland, after a fire; antisemitism in Janowiec nad Wisla, Poland; the arrival of German troops in Janowiec nad Wisla in 1939 and the evacuation of the Jews from the city; living with her family in Zwoleń, Poland; being deported with her father to a concentration camp; her imprisonment at Skarzysko-Kamienna concentration camp and her work in an ammunition factory; the evacuation of the prisoners of Skarzysko-Kamienna and their forced march to Leipzig, Germany; being liberated by the Russian Army during the march; traveling to Kraków, Poland and staying in a house for concentration camp victims; her marriage and move to Prague, Czech Republic; moving to Landsberg am Lech, Germany; the birth and death of her first child; immigrating to New Orleans, LA in 1950; moving to New Jersey; and the death of her first husband and her second marriage. Photographs of Eva Laks accompany the interview.

    Oral history interview with Naftali Laks

    Oral history interview with Naftali Laks

    Oral History

    Naftali Laks, born on June 1, 1922 in Zmigród, Poland, discusses his childhood and his family in Zmigród; walking 60 miles towards the Russian border before being captured by the Germans; laying railroad tracks; the Germans burning and destroying synagogues and houses of study; the summer of 1942 when 60 percent of Zmigród's population was liquidated in a pogrom; the liquidation of the Zmigród ghetto in 1943; his sister's sexual assault by a policeman in Tarnów, Poland; his deportation to Płaszów concentration camp and subsequently contracting typhus; the Skarzysko-Kamienna concentration camp and staying alive with the help of his sisters; being transported between several concentration camps, among them Buchenwald, Flossenbürg, and Mauthausen; the terrible conditions at Mauthausen; his reaction to seeing American bomber planes; Passover in 1945 at Mauthausen; British Spitfires firing on transport trains; American troops liberating Mauthausen; his search for his sisters in Czechoslovakia; his journey to Israel with his sisters and his life there from 1952 to 1959; moving to the United States in 1959; his marriage in 1961 and his wife's death in 1969; and his remarriage in 1972 and his life with his new wife, also a Holocaust survivor. Also contains four photographs; one of Naftali Laks' family in 1938, one of his home in Zmigród, Poland, and 2 of Naftali at a mass grave site in August 1993.

    Oral history interview with Leonard Linton

    Oral history interview with Leonard Linton

    Oral History

    Leonard Linton, born on January 1, 1922, discusses his training in the Military Government of the United States Army; his language abilities; his service with the 82nd Airborne Division during the occupation of Ludwigslust, Germany; his memories of the Nazi mayor of Ludwigslust; his experience during and after the liberation of Wöbbelin concentration camp; helping nurse concentration camp survivors at a railway station; and his opinion that General James M. Gavin's crossing of the Elbe River saved the lives of the Wöbbelin prisoners. Photographs of Leonard Linton in the mid-1940s and 1993 accompany the interview.

    Oral history interview with Henry Lowenbraun

    Oral history interview with Henry Lowenbraun

    Oral History

    Henry Lowenbraun, born on August 1, 1922 in Lancut, Poland, discusses his childhood in Lancut; his imprisonment in the Rzeszów ghetto in 1942; the killings and Aktions that took place in Rzeszów; his illness with stomach typhus; his selection in the ghetto for labor; escaping from the ghetto to the forest near Lácut and his time hiding there; his voluntary return to the ghetto in the spring of 1942 to be with his sister; being transported to Szebnie concentration camp in the spring of 1943; the shooting and hanging of inmates by the commandant in Szebnie; the Appel in Szebnie, during which every tenth prisoner was executed; the commandant's receiving of a death sentence after World War II; his movement to Mordarka, Poland to a train station in 1943; the murder of a large group of Kraków Jews in Mordarka; the train ride to Auschwitz concentration camp in the fall of 1943; his interaction with Dr. Josef Mengele; a beating that he received in Auschwitz for not picking up a stone; his movement to Monowitz concentration camp, a subcamp of Auschwitz, to work in the I.G. Farben Buna factory; the bombing of the Farben factory; the hanging of two inmates at the Appel at Monowitz; a death march in January of 1945 to Glebowice, Poland; his 12 day cattle train ride to Nordhausen concentration camp, a sub camp of Dora concentration camp; his illness with pneumonic pleurisy; the liberation of the camp by troops led by General Dwight Eisenhower while he was in the hospital; his time in Degerloch displaced persons camp near Stuttgart, Germany from 1945 to 1949; his marriage to his wife in 1946; the fate of his family during the Holocaust; his immigration to the United States on April 6, 1949; his life after World War II in Brooklyn, NY and Newark, NJ; and his general reflections on the Holocaust. Also contains a photocopy of a document that certifies Henry as a concentration camp prisoner, a photocopy of a photograph of Henry in his concentration camp uniform dated 1946, and four additional undated photocopies of photographs.

    Oral history interview with Paul Monka

    Oral history interview with Paul Monka

    Oral History

    Paul Monka, born in 1920 in Bedzin, Poland, describes his childhood in Bedzin; his father's textile business; his time studying in Piotrków Trybunalski, Poland; his memories of antisemitism in Piotrków Trybunalski and throughout Poland before, during, and after the World War II; his family's involvement in Zionism; his memories of a curfew and other anti-Jewish laws in Bedzin after 1939; his recollections of demeaning forced labor in Bedzin after 1939; his recollections of the Bedzin ghetto; his encounter with the Gestapo while working in a factory in Silesia; his subsequent arrest and time in solitary confinement in a Gestapo prison in Katowice, Poland; his time in the hospital after surviving solitary confinement and meeting Yanek; his acceptance into the Armia Ludowa resistance group by Yanek; his memories of selections from the Bedzin ghetto; his escape from Bedzin to the Armia Ludowa headquarters in the woods; his recollections of the formation of a Judenrat in Bedzin; his sabotage actions as part of the underground movement; his sister's illness and death from tuberculosis; his liberation by Russians; his memories of Zavatsky, the Polish General; his time as Security Chief of Silesia after the war; his memories of the Muselmänner who survived Auschwitz concentration camp; his recollections of the death marches from the camps at the end of the war; his feelings of bitterness toward the United States for refusing to accept his sister for immigration and for the lack of response in general; his time in Italy from 1945 to 1946; his work for the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and for the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration; his move to the United States on November 21, 1949; and his life in the United States after 1949.

    Oral history interview with Walter Nachtigall

    Oral history interview with Walter Nachtigall

    Oral History

    Walter Nachtigall, born in 1931 in Vienna, Austria, discusses the jubilation in Austria during the Anschluss on March 13, 1938 and the overt antisemitism that followed; his experiences during Kristallnacht in Austria on November 9, 1938; his father's imprisonment in Dachau concentration camp during Kristallnacht; going to England and Scotland along with his sister in order to avoid Nazi persecution; staying in Dysart, Scotland with a Christian family (James and Isa Salmond) during the summer of 1939; the release of his father from Dachau and his parent's immigration to Edinburgh, Scotland; his Jewish education by a Christian clergyman; reuniting with his parents and their immigration to the United States in 1939; and visiting Scotland in the late 1950s.

    Oral history interview with Judah Nadich

    Oral history interview with Judah Nadich

    Oral History

    Judah Nadich, born on May 13, 1912, discusses his role as General Dwight D. Eisenhower's adviser on Jewish affairs and displaced persons camps in 1945; his role as senior Jewish chaplain in the European Theater; the plan for non-Jewish and Jewish displaced persons after the World War II; President Harry S. Truman's designation of Earl G. Harrison, Dr. Joseph J. Schwartz, and a Commission to Europe to investigate the living conditions for displaced persons; Rabbi Stephen S. Wise's recommendation to General Eisenhower to appoint a Jewish adviser; visiting Dachau concentration camp in Germany shortly after its liberation in 1945; his time in Frankfurt, Germany, and his memories of meeting the only surviving rabbi of Frankfurt; visiting Feldafing displaced persons camp; General George S. Patton's feelings towards the Jews; General Patton's jurisdiction over displaced persons camps in Bavaria, Germany, and his demotion; the recommendations he made for improving the conditions in the displaced persons camps; visiting Landsberg displaced persons camp and the workshops that were set up in Landsberg for Jews; meeting with David Ben Gurion in Paris, France, and travelling with him to Zeilsheim displaced persons camp; Ben Gurion's emotional speech to the survivors in Zeilsheim; the singing of Hatikvah, the Israeli national anthem by the survivors; his book entitled, Eisenhower and the Jews; the percentage of displaced persons who wanted to go to Israel versus the percentage of those who wanted to go to other places; a tour of a hospital for children at St. Ottilien, Germany; the "religious problems" he experienced after his time in Germany; his departure from the rabbinate to become the Jewish Displaced Persons Director for Germany; working on a United Jewish Appeal campaign; returning to the rabbinate in 1947; and his reflections on the Holocaust and displaced persons camps. Also includes a photograph of Judah Nadich when he was the guest of honor at the Jewish Theological Seminary Dinner accompanies the interview.

    Oral history interview with Herma Rappaport

    Oral history interview with Herma Rappaport

    Oral History

    Herma Rappaport, born in Vienna, Austria in 1924, discusses her childhood in Vienna; Kristallnacht; her family being put on house arrest for five days; a Gentile neighbor helping her family; moving with her mother to the Jewish section of Vienna after Kristallnacht; the release of her father and the physical abuse he suffered at the hands of the Germans; her father's stroke; being sent to England on a Kindertransport; arriving in London, England, and her life in the Woolwich section of the city living with a Jewish doctor and his wife; being in Wales at the outbreak of World War II; being in London during the German bombing raids; her mother's death in Theresienstadt in April 1944; her father's imprisonment in Auschwitz in May 1944 and learning of his death in the camp; and her immigration to the United States in 1948. Two photographs of Herma, one in 1939 and one in 1990 accompany the interview.

    Oral history interview with Robert Rothschild

    Oral history interview with Robert Rothschild

    Oral History

    Robert Rothschild, born on January 9, 1924 in Mellrichstadt, Germany, discusses his childhood in Mellrichstadt; his education in a Catholic high school; the increase in antisemitism after the Nazis took power in 1933; his forced resignation from the Catholic school and the completion of his education in a Jewish day school; his apprenticeship to his uncle as a tailor and his arrival at his uncle's residence on Kristallnacht, November 9, 1938; being arrested and sent to Buchenwald; being released and taking a train to France; boarding a ship bound for the United States and the diversion of the ship to the Isle of Man off the coast of Great Britain; his time in a camp on the island and his eventual release; working as the foreman in a bakery; moving to England; the immigration of his parents and brother to the United States in 1941; his immigration to the United States in March 1947; and his reflections on the Holocaust. Two photographs of Robert Rothschild, one at age 15and one at age 6, accompany the interview.

    Oral history interview with Morris Rubell

    Oral history interview with Morris Rubell

    Oral History

    Morris Rubell, born on January 16, 1930 in Barycz, Poland (near Krosno, Poland), describes his childhood and the small community of Jews in Barycz; his father's work as an innkeeper; the beginning of World War II; being transported with his mother to the Rzeszow ghetto and escaping from the ghetto with his mother; his transport to Płaszów concentration camp in 1942; his preoccupation with survival and sorrow in the camps; his time in Mauthausen concentration camp in 1943; his time in Melk concentration camp in 1944; being sent to Ebensee concentration camp in March 1945 and his liberation from Ebensee by American soldiers shortly thereafter; his memories of reuniting with his sisters in Italy; meeting his brother Mark, who survived the war in Russia, in a displaced persons camp in Linz, Austria; his life in France in 1947 when the Polish immigrations quota to the United States was exhausted; his eventual move to the United States in February 1948; and his life since then in Vienna, NJ.

    Oral history interview with Aaron Schwarz

    Oral history interview with Aaron Schwarz

    Oral History

    Aaron Schwarz discusses his childhood in Zarowka, Poland; escaping deportation by jumping from a train and returning home to Zarowka; his arrest in Tarnów, Poland; his time in the Radomysl Wilki and Kraków ghettos; participating in forced labor in several forced labor camps in Poland; escaping a deportation train on the way to Treblinka concentration camp in 1944; his liberation by the Russians in 1944; traveling throughout Poland after liberation and experiencing antisemitism at that time; and his time in to Heidelberg, Germany, just before his immigration to the United States in 1949. Two photographs of Aaron Schwarz accompany the interview.

    Oral history interview with Ida Schwarz

    Oral history interview with Ida Schwarz

    Oral History

    Ida Schwarz, born on May 20, 1925, discusses her early life in Tarnów, Poland; the arrival of the Germans in Tarnów on September 4, 1939; the creation of a ghetto in Tarnów by the Germans in the summer of 1942; hiding in the ghetto in August 1942, first in a sewer and later in a cellar; her participation in labor for the Germans while in the ghetto; escaping from a deportation train in November 1942; returning to the ghetto with the help of a Polish peasant; the liquidation of the ghetto in September 1943 and her deportation to Płaszów concentration camp; being transferred to Auschwitz concentration camp in October 1943; her participation in labor while in Auschwitz; the closing of Auschwitz and the death march of the inmates to a train taking them to Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in January 1945; her experiences in Bergen-Belsen; being transferred to Mauthausen concentration camp and her liberation by American troops in 1945; returning to Tarnów and her subsequent travel to Heidelberg, Germany, in 1945; the birth of her son; and her immigration to the United States with the help of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Gertrude Sonnenberg

    Oral history interview with Gertrude Sonnenberg

    Oral History

    Gertrude Sonnenberg, born on February 1, 1919 in Hausberge (Hausberge an der Porta), Germany, begins the interview by showing a photograph of herself at age 19 and photographs of her and her father taken by the police; two rings made for her while she was in the Riga ghetto and a piece of paper given to her by a Jewish policeman as her parents were taken away. She continues by discussing her childhood in Hausberge; the changes that took place in Hausberge when Hitler came to power in 1933; antisemitism in Germany before 1933; her family's move to Hesse, Germany; the closing of high schools, universities, and professions to Jews in the late 1930s; her time in Dortmund, Germany, working as a dressmaker; Kristallnacht; the conversion of her house to a bank in 1939; the establishment of new laws in Hannover pertaining to Jews; the activities of the Kulterbund Deutscher Juden (Jüdischer Kulturbund); the bombing of Germany by the British; her family's time in hiding in an attic in Hannover before their deportation; her family's three day train ride to Riga, Latvia; participating in forced labor in Riga; the gassing and shooting of Jews who couldn't work by the Latvian SS; the establishment of a ghetto and an Appel in Riga; the atrocities that took place in Riga; the uprising in Riga on October 30, 1942, and the execution of the participants of the uprising; her memories of her parents' deportation from Riga; her attempted suicide; her sister's work as a nurse in a hospital and the abortions that were performed in the hospital in Riga; babies being sent away for experiments; the liquidation of the Riga ghetto; her and her sister's time in Kiel-Hassee concentration camp and their liberation from the camp by the Red Cross; their move to and time in Sweden after the World War II; their life in the United States after their emigration in 1948; and her feelings on speaking about the Holocaust. Includes two photographs of Gertrude, one as a young woman and one more recent, accompany the interview.

    Oral history interview with Joseph Weinbuch

    Oral history interview with Joseph Weinbuch

    Oral History

    Joseph Weinbuch, born in 1924 in Kurów, Poland, describes the antisemitism in Kurów; his memories of Kurów burning in 1939; living in the Kurów ghetto from 1939 until 1941; being in Majdanek concentration camp; being in Janowska concentration camp for four months in 1941; the Janowska Judenrat; escaping the camp and returning to Kurów where his mother secretly nursed him to health from typhus; his family's removal from their house in 1941; hiding in the woods and fields near Kurów from 1941 until 1944; Jews hiding in private homes in exchange for money; his memories of the Witkowskis, a Polish couple who helped him hide and find a job; a near-fatal encounter with SS officers; his father's murder by the Armia Krajowa after the war; his thoughts on Jewish-Christian relations in Poland and in general; his liberation in 1944; his time in the Polish Army after liberation; his time in Austria after leaving the Polish Army; and immigrating to the United States February 1949.

    Oral history interview with Sol Urbach

    Oral history interview with Sol Urbach

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Luba Zeidel

    Oral history interview with Luba Zeidel

    Oral History

    Luba Zeidel, born in 1914 in Vishkovo, Poland (possibly Vyshkovo, Ukraine), discusses her childhood; growing up in a religious family with nine children; her father's work as a locksmith; experiencing antisemitism in school and in town; the bombing and general confusion during the German takeover; the synagogue in Vishkovo burning to the ground; her family fleeing to Sarny, Ukraine; her family's murder by the Germans; escaping with her sister to ZHadova, Ukraine; meeting her husband in ZHadova; liberation by the Russians; life in the Landsberg am Lech displaced persons camp in Germany; and her immigration to the United States in 1951.

    Oral history interview with Teddy Zweig

    Oral history interview with Teddy Zweig

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Susan Lederman

    Oral history interview with Susan Lederman

    Oral History

    Susan Lederman, born on May 28, 1937, discusses her childhood in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia); her mother's and father's education; the help that she received from Gentiles; her conversion by a priest for her protection; her uncle and his family who were shot as partisans; her time in Trnava, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia); the movement of two Jewish families into her home; her time with a family in Budapest, Hungary; the murder of the Hungarian family; her time with her godmother's family; her parents' hiding in a bombed-out factory; her time living with another Hungarian family in Bratislava; the family's willingness to take a chance in hiding her because she had blond hair, blue eyes, and could speak Hungarian; the way she needed to act as not to "blow the cover;" her parents' hiding in a rented room with her mother's aunt; her knowledge of the deportations of Jews; her father's exemption from the deportations because of his printing skills; the end of their hiding in 1944; their time living in an apartment before emigration; their immigration to the United States in 1948; her parents' decision to stop keeping kosher and observing the Sabbath; her education in the United States; her family's settlement in Queens, NY; her political sophistication during the Eisenhower era; the help her family received from the Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society of America; her father's work for a Czech newspaper in NY and then for the United Nations Postal Administration; her encouragement to her friends to read the Diary of Anne Frank; and her belief that America is an open, accepting society.

    Oral history interview with David Altholz

    Oral history interview with David Altholz

    Oral History

    David Altholz, born in Krosno, Poland on May 26, 1928, discusses his childhood in Krosno and Chorzów, Poland; his experiences with antisemitism, especially stone throwing; his family's vacation in Poland in 1939; seeing the Jews of Chorzów evacuating around the time of the German invasion of Poland; the Germans executing educated and professional men; being rounded up with his family for a work detail; being imprisoned in Szebnie concentration camp; being transferred to Płaszów concentration camp where he reunited with his father and learned the fate of his mother and sister; the numerous prisoners who were sent to Auschwitz; the atrocities in Płaszów; his claims of being a watchmaker as a means of survival; his memories of the "Appel" in Płaszów, during which every tenth prisoner was shot; his transfer to Sachsenhausen concentration camp in 1943; working in a factory in Ludwigslust, Germany; being liberated by American troops; going to Berlin, Germany; reuniting with his father in Lübeck, Germany; immigrating to the United States with his father and the aid they received from the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and the Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society of America; being drafted into the US Army for service during the Korean War; his life in Maplewood, NJ; reflecting on his survival as being pure accident; and his thoughts on Germans and Poles.

    Oral history interview with Ann Schatz

    Oral history interview with Ann Schatz

    Oral History

    Ann Schatz, born in Brody, Poland (now in Ukraine) on March 3, 1922, discusses her family's move from their home to an apartment after the Soviet occupation of Eastern Poland; her capture by a German soldier; her forced labor at the hands of the Germans and her eventual release from German custody; her father's arrest by the Germans and his return from captivity severely beaten and with his beard shaved; the establishment of a ghetto in Brody by the Germans in 1942; her father's bout with typhus fever; her brother's attempted escape from the Brody ghetto and his subsequent capture and death in Vilnius, Lithuania; the Germans killing her father in 1943; the deportation of her mother to Majdanek concentration camp; hiding from the Germans in a cellar and her discovery by a Polish fireman; her deportation to a labor camp; her liberation by the Soviets in 1944 and her marriage the same year; her time in a displaced persons camp in Frankfurt, Germany; and her immigration to the United States in 1948.

    Oral history interview with Gitla Grynwald

    Oral history interview with Gitla Grynwald

    Oral History

    Gitla Grynwald, born on October 23, 1902 in Zawiercie, Poland, discusses her childhood in Zawiercie; her education; her work in a library until 1932; her marriage to Aron Grynwald on March 8, 1933; her time in Kraków, Poland after her marriage; the German invasion of Kraków on September 6, 1939; the subsequent establishment of a ghetto in Kraków; the Kraków Judenrat; her husband's work for the Gestapo in Kraków; her transport, with her husband, to Płaszów concentration camp in March 1943; conditions in Płaszów; being transported to Auschwitz concentration camp in October 1944; forced labor in Auschwitz; being transported to Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in Germany after three weeks in Auschwitz; conditions in Bergen-Belsen; her time in Raguhn, Germany from January 1945 until April 1945; being transported to Theresienstadt concentration camp in April 1945; her time in a hospital from May 1945 until July 1945; returning to Kraków in July 1945; and her life in the United States after 1961. Also contains a photograph of Gitla Grynwald in 1940 and a photograph of her, with her husband Aron, recent to the time of the interview.

    Oral history interview with Sally Chase

    Oral history interview with Sally Chase

    Oral History

    Sally Chase, born on November 28, 1928, discusses her childhood in Radom, Poland; being sent to the Radom ghetto; the murder of intellectual Jews by the Germans; how the Germans forced the Jews to wear the yellow Star of David; volunteering to work at the Wehrmacht Alpha A labor camp as a means of protection from persecution; the attempted liquidation of the Radom ghetto by the Germans and the deportation of Radom's Jews to Treblinka concentration camp, including her parents; the gassing of Radom's Jews at Treblinka; the liquidation of the labor camps and her deportation to Auschwitz concentration camp; selections of prisoners by Dr. Josef Mengele; her move after six months to an aircraft factory in Gebhardsdorf, Germany; marching from Gebhardsdorf to another work camp; her unsuccessful escape attempt from a work camp; being liberated by Soviet troops; returning to Poland and subsequently traveling to Czechoslovakia after World War II; and her immigration to the United States in 1947. Also contains three black and white photographs of Sally Chase. One dated 1946, one dated 1948, and one dated 1978.

    Oral history interview with Renee Cantor

    Oral history interview with Renee Cantor

    Oral History

    Renee Cantor discusses her early childhood in Brussels, Belgium; her move to a Sephardic orphanage in England at age 4; not remembering her own family; her experiences in the Sephardic orphanage; her memories of life in a British "evacuation town" with a Christian family; her memories of antisemitism in British schools and communities; her high school graduation at age 16; applying to go to Palestine; meeting her husband on the day he arrived in England to go to Manchester Union college; and her life in the United States after 1946.

    Oral history interview with Lotte Baum

    Oral history interview with Lotte Baum

    Oral History

    Lotte Baum, born in Essen, Germany on August 9, 1915, discusses her childhood and adolescent life in Essen; her parents' deaths prior to the Holocaust; the destruction of synagogues, businesses, and homes during Kristallnacht; moving to the Netherlands in 1941; the confiscation of her husband's factory by the Germans; being transported to Westerbork concentration camp; working in the Westerbork laundry facility; paying in gold money in order to remain at Westerbork; being transported to Auschwitz in 1944; learning of her husband's death in Auschwitz; her work in a munitions factory in the Sudetenland; her liberation by the Russians in March 1945; her second marriage to a member of the German underground; and moving to the United States in 1947. Also contains photographs of Lotte Baum in 1947 and in May 1991.

    Oral history interview with Aba Prawer

    Oral history interview with Aba Prawer

    Oral History

    Aba Prawer, born on January 1, 1922, discusses his childhood in Miechów Lubelski, Poland; his visits to Landsberg am Lech and Feldafing displaced persons camps in Germany in 1945; his father's imprisonment in Skarzysko-Kamienna concentration camp in Poland; antisemitism in Miechów after German occupation; the curfew and other anti-Jewish laws in Miechów after German occupation; performing forced labor under SS supervision on a railroad near Miechów; the financial and emotional support he received from a Volksdeutsche family friend; his time in a forced labor camp near Kraków, Poland; being transported to Rabka, Poland, and doing forced labor; returning to the Kraków ghetto in 1943; the liquidation of the Kraków ghetto in 1943; his numerous forced labor assignments while in Kraków; working in the Buna synthetic-rubber works factory at Monowitz (Monowice) concentration camp, a subcamp of Auschwitz; the crematoria at Auschwitz; being transported to Buchenwald concentration camp; prisoners falling ill from typhus in Buchenwald; his recollections of Ilse Koch, the wife of Buchenwald's Commandant, Karl Koch; his liberation from Buchenwald in 1945; his life after liberation and his move to the United States in 1951; receiving help from the Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society of America; and his life in New Jersey after 1956.

    Oral history interview with Dina Weinreb Jacoud

    Oral history interview with Dina Weinreb Jacoud

    Oral History

    Dina Weinreb Jacoud, born on June 7, 1925 in Lavochne, Ukraine, discusses her childhood; the limited educational opportunities in Lavochne public schools; going to school in Stryi, Ukraine; the 1939 partition of Poland; a Volksdeutsche friend who took her from Stryi to be reunited with her family in Lavochne; her time hiding in the woods near Lavochne with her father in August 1944; moving with her father to Hungary in August 1944; hiding in Hungary; receiving false papers and her false identity as Stephany Warge, a Mischlinge; moving to Budapest, Hungary and her time working illegally there; her arrest as a political prisoner and her time as a political prisoner in Békéscsaba, Hungary, prison in 1944; the horrors of life in the Békéscsaba prison; her belief in the existence of extrasensory perception and memories of two incidents, one as a child in Lavochne and one as an adult in the United States in 1967, when she believes she possessed extrasensory perception; the SS and the Gestapo; being transported from Debrecen, Hungary to Auschwitz concentration camp and the conditions during the transport; being sanitized upon entering Auschwitz and receiving a red triangle, the marking of a Christian prisoner; performing forced labor at Auschwitz; performing slave labor at a bulb factory in Plauen, Germany, and her liberation from Plauen; life in Feldafing displaced persons camp in Germany, where she met her first husband, and her marriage there; moving her husband to Munich, Germany, and their later move to New Orleans, LA, on August 8, 1949; living in Miami, Florida, New York City, and Newark, New Jersey; her recollections of segregation while living in Florida; her memories of receiving assistance from the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee while living in New York City; and her life in Newark. Also contains a photograph of Dina Weinreb Jacoud in 1947 and one of her in 1948.

    Oral history interview with Margie Appel

    Oral history interview with Margie Appel

    Oral History

    Margie Appel, born August 13, 1928, discusses her childhood in Klečenov, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia); her experiences in public school; her father's service in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I; the Hungarian occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1938; her brothers being sent to forced labor; photographs of one of her brothers; her youngest brother's deportation to Auschwitz concentration camp in Poland; the gassing of her father at Auschwitz; her reunion with her brothers after the liberation of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp; her family's removal from their home; their placement in the ghetto in Munkács, Hungary (now Mukacheve, Ukraine); the atrocities that took place in the Munkács ghetto; the torturing of her brother for breaking curfew; the beatings of her five brothers in the ghetto; the train ride to Auschwitz; the disappearance of her mother; the "selection" of her and her sister for forced labor by Dr. Josef Mengele; the beating she received from the Kapos; her "close calls" with the gas chambers; her and her sister's transfer to Gelsenkirchen concentration camp in Germany to work on barges; the beating of Hungarian girls; their transfer to Essen concentration camp in Germany, to work in the Krupp factories; the bombing of the factory and the camp; her fasting on Yom Kippur; the mental state of her sister; the problems that she had with her sister and her desire for relief from the burden she caused; the train ride to Bergen-Belsen concentration camp; the liberation of the camp by British troops; the atmosphere after liberation; the aid that they received from the Red Cross; her arrival at Celle, Germany, near Bergen-Belsen; the visit of Eleanor Roosevelt to the camp; the discovery of her brother's fate; the meeting of her future husband in Most, Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic); her marriage on Aug. 27, 1946; her time spent in the Gabersee displaced persons camp in Germany; her pregnancy and birth to twins and the death of one of the twins; her arrival in the United States in 1949; the help she received from the Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society; her life in Lakewood, N.J.; the death of her husband in 1970; her marriage to her second husband; her trip to Israel; and her belief that people survived the Holocaust so that Judaism could grow again. Also contains a photograph of Margie in 1945 and a photograph of her in 1989.

    Oral history interview with Victor Wegard

    Oral history interview with Victor Wegard

    Oral History

    Victor Wegard, born in New York, discusses his enlistment into the United States Army after graduating from high school; his job as a reporter for the Army War College in Trinidad; his time in Sicily, Italy; volunteering for the paratroopers; his placement in the War Crimes Commission; being trained for entry into concentration camps at Cumberland University in Tennessee; his return to Europe in 1944, first to England, then to Holland, and finally to France; his placement into the War Crimes Commission, unit number 6832; his orders to secure the Palace of Justice in Nuremberg, Germany; his order to attach his unit to the 91st Infantry Division going to Flossenbürg concentration camp; his arrival at Flossenbürg; his learning of the fate of certain members of the SS; the investigation in a neighboring town called Namering; the claims of the townspeople of seeing or hearing nothing; the discovery of the bodies of recently executed people in Namering and the proper burial of the victims; his memories of the United States Army forcing the townspeople to look closely at the victims' corpses; the claim by the Germans that Flossenbürg had the most "efficient" gas chamber; the atrocities that took place in Flossenbürg; his discovery of a cousin at the camp; the discovery of Yugoslavs, Greeks, and German political prisoners including members of the White Rose resistance group; his thoughts that the prisoners in Flossenbürg were carrying diseases; the capturing of SS and Ukrainian guards; the interrogation of the SS and Ukrainian guards; the interrogation of SS Lieutenant Colonel Jochen Peiper; his experiences during the Nuremberg trials; the Dachau War Crime Trials; his memories of having to defend the criminals; the trial of Dr. Klaus Schilling; frustrations that occurred with the trials; the case against German commandant Andreas Müller; his reflections on his role as a Holocaust educator; and his reflections on Revisionists and deniers. Also contains a black-and-white photograph of Wegard in his army uniform in 1940.

    Oral history interview with Edith Farben

    Oral history interview with Edith Farben

    Oral History

    Edith Farben, born in Velká Polana, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia) on April 9, 1925, discusses her childhood; her short stay in Munkás, Czechoslovakia (Mukacheve, Ukraine); the changes that took place when World War II broke out and the Hungarians occupied the area; the Jews being forced to wear yellow stars and other anti-Jewish laws; an incident that occurred where two Hungarian soldiers tried to help her family; her grandfather's inability to find papers to avoid deportation; the movement of her family into the ghetto in Munkás in 1944; her grandfather's beard being shaved off; her grandfather's death; her family's deportation by train to Auschwitz; arriving at Auschwitz; the separation of her brother and father; working in the "Kanada" commando sorting clothes; her relatively "easy" life in the camp; the beating of her aunt in Auschwitz; the entrance of inmates into the crematorium; an uprising in Auschwitz in October 1944; the forced labor of the inmates, especially on Jewish holidays; "blood-taking" on Tisha Ba'av; the gas chambers in Auschwitz; her mother's and sister's deportations to Bergen-Belsen, where her sister died; being deported to the Sudetenland (German-occupied Czechoslovakia) where she worked in a factory named Waisswasser (Mittelsteine concentration camp); her belief that her survival is due to the fact that she was nimble fingered; incidents where she helped her friends survive; the help that she received from Czech forced laborers; the long train ride to Bratislava, Slovakia, where she encountered Russian soldiers; reuniting with her mother, brother, and two sisters in Bratislava; finding out the fate of her father and sisters; moving back to Velká Polana where she found her house was occupied by neighbors; the shelters provided by the United Jewish Appeal; her marriage in October 1945; visiting her brother in Czechoslovakia; moving to Wasserburg, Germany in the spring of 1946; arriving in the United States in July 1947; her life in the United States with her family; her mother's experiences during the Holocaust; and her reflections on why she survived and not forgetting what happened in the Holocaust. Also contains a photograph of Edith at age seventeen and a photograph of her at age sixty.

    Oral history interview with Robert Mansfeld

    Oral history interview with Robert Mansfeld

    Oral History

    Robert Mansfeld, born in 1927 in Amsterdam, Netherlands, discusses his childhood in Amsterdam; his father's career as a high-fashion manufacturer; his family's stay in Berlin, Germany between the years of 1930 and 1935; his time as a neighbor of Hermann Göring; moving back to Amsterdam in 1935; his parents' divorce; the German occupation of the Netherlands in 1940; the posting of the Nuremberg laws; the protest of the occupation by the Dutch people; the disappearance of students from his school, probably to Westerbork, a Dutch concentration camp; the imprisonment of community and national leaders; his life while his father was incarcerated; the underground's destruction of files that the Germans had on Amsterdam residents; his inclusion in a roundup in Amsterdam; his inclusion in a selection at a gymnasium in Amsterdam; his uncle's "lease on life" as a member of the Jewish council; his family's contacts with the underground; his family's separation to different hiding places; his time hiding with a plumber and his family; his time in Friesland, Netherlands with a Dutch Reformed family of farmers; his falsification of his identity; his sister's hiding situation; Allied raids in the Netherlands; his interactions with Germans who were not suspicious of him; the roundup of school children for labor; his fear of being hit by V-2 rockets or Spitfire attacks; the Canadian liberation of the Netherlands; his father's stay in Amsterdam during the war; reuniting with his family after the war; the disappearance of aunts, uncles, and grandparents during the war; a request by Ferdinand aus der Fünten to his father to testify on his behalf and his father's subsequent refusal to testify; his life after the war; his immigration to Canada in 1952 and his later immigration to the United States in 1958; and his perspectives on the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Henry Yungst

    Oral history interview with Henry Yungst

    Oral History

    Henry Yungst, born on October 7, 1920, discusses his childhood in Ozorków, Poland; the change in attitude of the Poles towards the Jews at the beginning of 1939; the looting of his father's factory; his family's move and their experience living in a single room with no toilet facilities; the roundup of Jews in Łódź, Poland, on April 1, 1940; their movement into a movie house in Ozorków, Poland; the death of his father and older brother by starvation in a camp in Poznan, Poland; the gassing of his mother, sister, and younger brother in Chelmno concentration camp; his time in a forced labor camp in Danzig (Gdansk, Poland); his memories of being whipped by an officer; the help that he received from a foreman; his transport to Palemonas concentration camp in Lithuania; his memories of the transport of children to Paneriai, Lithuania, to be killed; his memories of the atrocities committed by "Peter the Terrible" and other Ukrainians; his transport to Kaiserwald concentration camp in Riga, Latvia; a plane that crashed into Kaiserwald on a suicide mission; his transport to Stutthof concentration camp; his memories of criminals being unleashed by their captors on Jewish prisoners; his memories of a beating he received in Stutthof; his transport to Buchenwald concentration camp where he was reunited with his cousin and uncle; his transport to Bochumer Verein concentration camp; his memories of finding out the fate of his mother, sister, and younger brother; his return to Buchenwald concentration camp; his short time in Flossenbürg; his transport to Dachau concentration camp and on the way, his liberation by the United States Army; suffering from typhus; his time spent in two hospitals after liberation; his work for the U.S. Army in Straubing, Germany; meeting his future wife in Straubing; his unsuccessful search for his sister in Israel; his immigration to the United States in 1954; his life in New Jersey; his children learning about his experiences; and his warning to be "watchful." Also contains a photograph of Henry as a young man in Poland, a photograph of him at middle age, a photograph of a memorial with the names of his family on it, and a photograph of a memorial with the town Ozorków written on it in Hebrew.

    Oral history interview with Zelda Peters

    Oral history interview with Zelda Peters

    Oral History

    Zelda Peters, born on May 29, 1921, discusses her childhood in Sighet (Sighetu Marmației), Romania; her father's work as a butcher; attending Catholic school; working for an import-export business, a lawyer, and an architectural firm; the Hungarian occupation of Romania from 1940 to 1944; antisemitism in Hungary; the German occupation of Romania beginning in 1944; German antisemitism; Germany establishing ghettos and deporting Jews to Auschwitz concentration camp; receiving a bogus postcard from her parents enticing her to go to Auschwitz; life in Auschwitz; being in Ravensbrück concentration camp; developing tuberculosis while in Ravensbrück; liberation from the camp by the Russians; life at Gabersee displaced persons camp in Germany; meeting and marrying her husband; the birth of her daughter; immigration to the United States in 1951 with the help of the Society of Friends (Quakers); and her life in Highland Park, NJ, after 1951. Also contains two photographs of Zelda Peters in 1944 and 1992.

    Oral history interview with David Rosenblum

    Oral history interview with David Rosenblum

    Oral History

    David Rosenblum, born on May 13, 1925, describes his memories of his father purchasing forged documents for him; the creation of the ghetto in Kraków, Poland, in 1941 and his family's move to Szydlowiec, Poland, as a result; his stay in a Capuchin monastery in order to avoid capture by the Germans; his memories of being denounced as a Jew by a former classmate and his escape from the monastery to return to Szydlowiec; his memories of his brother's capture and deportation to a forced labor camp and his unsuccessful efforts to free his brother; his family's imprisonment in Treblinka concentration camp; the deportation and the killings on trains bound for Treblinka; his period of homelessness from 1942 to 1943; his escape from forced labor in Radom, Poland; his capture and torture by the Gestapo; his imprisonment in Jerozolimska camp and Montelupich prison in Kraków; his experiences in Auschwitz concentration camp; a death march to Kutno, Poland; his time in Mühldorf concentration camp; being placed on a forced labor detail building a forest camp (Waldlager VI camp); his liberation by the United States Army in April 1945 while on a train in the Bavarian Alps; and his life in the United States after World War II. A photograph of David Rosenblum in 1955 and a photograph of the Rosenblum family in 1939 accompany the interview.

    Oral history interview with Mila Bachner

    Oral history interview with Mila Bachner

    Oral History

    Mila Bachner, born on March 15, 1927, discusses her childhood in Chrzanów, Poland; antisemitism in Poland; the attacks on her father and grandfather by Poles in Chrzanów; the death of her grandfather from a beating; the invasion of Poland by Germany in 1939; her family's attempted escape; living in the Chrzanów ghetto; the confiscation of her parents' business; the death of her brother in Gross Masselwitz concentration camp in Germany; her other brother's time in Mauthausen concentration camp in Austria; her mother and aunt's inclusion in a roundup; her knowledge of the crematorium at Auschwitz concentration camp; her sister's transport to Auschwitz; her work making coats for the Germans; being transported to transit camp Dulag in Germany; her selection by Dr. Franz Novak to live; her time in Nova Sol concentration camp in Neusalz, Germany (Nowa Sól, Poland); forced labor in Nova Sol and the cruelty that she was forced to endure there; a death march to Flossenbürg concentration camp; passing through Potsdam, Germany, where Hitler Youth threw rocks at her; the help that she and a friend received from a German woman near Flossenbürg; wondering if there was a God; holding on to her pictures despite being beaten; her work taking clothes off of the dead; marching to a railroad station; being on a cattle car for eight days; arriving in Hanover, Germany, near Bergen-Belsen concentration camp; her work pulling dead bodies to the crematorium at Bergen-Belsen; being liberated by the British; possible reasons for her survival; her time shortly after liberation with a German family near Bergen-Belsen; reuniting with her brother; her secret crossing of the border to Austria; her time in a hospital in Austria; and her and her brother's immigration to the United States in 1947. Also contains two identical photographs of Mila in late 1939 or early 1940.

    Oral history interview with Ernest Bokor

    Oral history interview with Ernest Bokor

    Oral History

    Ernest Bokor, born on August 21, 1920, discusses his early life in Debrad, Slovakia; his childhood in Dubovec, Slovakia; the invasion of Czechoslovakia by Hungary in 1938; the antisemitism of the Hungarians; moving to Budapest, Hungary, in 1943; his use of green-dyed shirts to pose as a member of the Hungarian Arrow Cross, or Nyialskereszets Párt; the altering of his identification papers from "Jewish" to "Catholic;" saving Jewish children in Budapest in November 1944; his encounter with a friend posing as a member of the Arrow Cross; his joining of a group headed by Raoul Wallenberg; the group's successful efforts to save Jews in Budapest; his chance meeting with his brother and his leaving Wallenberg's group; his realization that his mother had died at the hands of the Nazis, probably in Auschwitz concentration camp; his arrest by the Nazis and his deportation to Mauthausen concentration camp with his brother; their liberation by the United States Army; his brother's death; his return home and meeting with his sister; his marriage; and his immigration with his wife to Israel in 1949. Also contains photographs of Ernest in 1945 and the current day.

    Oral history interview with Jola Hoffman

    Oral history interview with Jola Hoffman

    Oral History

    Jola Hoffman, born in Leipzig, Germany on June 13, 1931, discusses her childhood in Leipzig; the establishment of the Nuremberg laws in 1936; her aunt and uncle's departure from Germany prior to the start of the World War II; the Gestapo forcing her family and others to leave their homes; their train ride headed for the Polish border in 1938; the family's ability to enter Poland because they had family in Łódź; her father's experiences traveling between England and Poland prior to World War II; her father's move to Lwów, Poland (L'viv, Ukraine), under the advice of the mayor of Warsaw; the invasion of Warsaw by the Germans; her and her mother's trip to Lwów to join her father; the emigration of some of her family members; the deportation of the Jews from Germany between the years of 1938 and 1939; volunteers who were given the opportunity during the Russian occupation to leave for German-occupied Poland; her father's move to the Warsaw ghetto; her and her mother's dangerous trip to join her father in the ghetto; starvation and death in the ghetto and the deportation of Jews to Treblinka concentration camp; the liquidation of the Warsaw ghetto; the help that her family received from friends and a priest in the Polish underground; her mother's ability to get false identification papers; her mother being taken to the Umschlagplatz (transport center); the help that her father received from a factory official from the ghetto to save her mother; the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; being hit by a car while leaving the ghetto in 1943 and needing to be hospitalized; hearing of her grandfather's suicide; her release from the hospital; her time with her family living in a peasant cottage; the last time she saw her father before his departure in the summer of 1943 and her memories of him; her time in an apartment near Warsaw with a landlady who was working for the Polish underground; her involvement with the underground delivering news from the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC); working in a hospital when Warsaw was bombed; being deported to a work camp in Breslau, Germany (now Wroclaw, Poland); her job in a factory in the city of Breslau; her mother's job as a French translator in Breslau; the liberation of the camp in 1945; seeing "ghosts in the street" from Auschwitz concentration camp in Poland; her and her mother's experiences in Germany and Poland after the war; the punishment of Poles who helped Jews during World War II; the help that she received from Gentiles during World War II; her immigration to England as part of Rabbi Solomon Schonfeld's mission to get children out of Poland; her immigration to the United States in 1949; her education at Kean College in New Jersey; her role as an anti-Vietnam activist; visiting Poland after the war and seeing a sculpture of Janusz Korczak; and her inability to talk about the Holocaust with her children. Also contains a photograph of Jola at age six vacationing in Yugoslavia, a photograph of her in the spring of 1944 in Warsaw, Poland, and a photograph of her in April of 1993.

    Oral history interview with Leon Bass

    Oral history interview with Leon Bass

    Oral History

    Leon Bass, born in 1925 in Philadelphia, PA, discusses his childhood in Philadelphia; his experiences with racism in the 1930s; his experience as a soldier in an African-American unit during World War II; his time in England in 1943 with General Patton's Third Army, 183rd Engineer Combat Battalion; his participation in the Battle of Bulge; his interaction with white soldiers during World War II; his unit's work putting up bridges and removing land mines in Belgium; his unit's move into Germany; his inability to assess the nature or character of the Germans; his memories of entering Buchenwald concentration camp and seeing "walking dead people"; his memories of entering the crematorium where the bodies were piled up and recollections that the ashes were used for fertilizer; his learning that there were many concentration camps like Buchenwald; his time in the Pacific War Theatre; his enrollment in West Chester State College and his desire to become a history teacher; his experiences with racism after World War II; his involvement in the civil rights movement of the 1960s; his experiences as a principal of two different African-American schools and one all white school; a visit to his school by a Holocaust survivor that led him to talk about the Holocaust publicly; and his reflections on the Holocaust as being a human problem. Also contains a photograph of Leon and another soldier in their army uniforms.

    Oral history interview with Michael Hersh

    Oral history interview with Michael Hersh

    Oral History

    Michael Hersh, born in Rakosin, Czechoslovakia in 1929, discusses his early life in Velikije Lucki, Czechoslovakia (Velyki Luchky, Ukraine); the confiscation of his father's grocery store by Nazis at the outbreak of World War II; his family's deportation to the ghetto in Munkacs, Hungary (Mukacheve, Ukraine) in April 1944; the family's subsequent deportation to Auschwitz concentration camp; the "appel" in Auschwitz; being transferred to Mauthausen concentration camp; being sent to Ebensee concentration camp and his experiences there; working in the aircraft factory in Schwechat, Austria; his participation in a death march; his transfer to Wels concentration camp in Austria; the liberation of Wels by American soldiers in May 1945; his bout with typhus after liberation; his return to Czechoslovakia after the war; his chance meeting with his brother, Albert, on a train and learning that his brother, Avaraham, also survived; immigrating to the United States along with his brothers; his enlistment and training in the United States Army; his career in the field of interior design; and the birth of his three children. Also contains three black and white photographs of Michael Hersch and others dating from late 1945 to 1983.

    Oral history interview with Jack Ring

    Oral history interview with Jack Ring

    Oral History

    Rabbi Jack Ring, born on September 14, 1916 in Pultusk, Poland, begins his interview by discussing and displaying Talmudic commentaries published in Shanghai, China, by Mirrer Yeshiva. He continues his interview by discussing his early life in Pultusk; the immigration of several family members to the United States; the movement of his mother and sister to Wyszków, Poland; the ordering of the town's Jews to meet in the village square by the Germans, who were assisted by an antisemitic school teacher; his family's deportation to East Prussia; a German officer's direction of his family back to Pultusk; his family's subsequent direction to the Russian-occupied area of Poland; his decision to go to Vilnius, Lithuania to avoid persecution; his re-entry into the Mirrer Yeshiva which had relocated to Vilnius; the death of his sister, her husband, and his mother at the hands of the Germans in 1942; the killing of his brother, Chaim and two of Chaim's sons by the Germans and the death of his brothers, Yuda Elizer and Moshe, along with their wives in the ghetto in Warsaw, Poland; his early education including his studies in yeshivas in Naveredok, Lomza, and Mir, Poland; the move of his Yeshiva to Deidanov, Lithuania (near Vilnius) in early 1940; the occupation of the Baltic States by the Russians; the splitting of the Yeshiva into four parts and his move to Krakes, Lithuania, with his portion of the Yeshiva; their need for transit visas and the provision of visas by Chiune Sugihara, the Japanese consul in Kaunas, Lithuania; the provision of exit visas by the NKVD; his travel with his portion of the Yeshiva to Vladivostok, Russia, and on to Tsuruga, Japan; the provision of funds for the trip by Rabbis Abraham Kalmanowitz and Aharon Kotler of the Vaad Hatzala; the arrival of his group of students in Kobe, Japan; the subsequent removal of all foreigners from Japan; the Yeshiva's relocation to Shanghai, China; the beginnings of World War II in the Pacific; the origins of the Yeshiva's financial support in the United States; the German Government's influence in setting up a Shanghai ghetto in July 1943 and its subsequent dissolution is September 1945; the German's inability to get a European-style killing program established in Shanghai; the post-war immigration of students to the United States, Palestine, and Canada; the immigration of Rabbis Levenstien and Shmerelevitz of the Yeshiva to Palestine and their subsequent effect on Yeshiva education in Israel; his marriage to an American and the birth of his four daughters and ten grandchildren; his reflections on his belief that he was saved by divine guidance; his discussions of the Holocaust with his daughters; and the effect of Holocaust survival upon him.

    Oral history interview with Lee Merel

    Oral history interview with Lee Merel

    Oral History

    Lee Merel, born in Berlin, Germany on April 7, 1924, discusses his current life in Westfield, NJ; his childhood in Berlin; his education at an Orthodox Hebrew day school; his immigration to Palestine via Switzerland in 1935; his arrival in the United States in 1937; his relatives who remained in Germany and perished in the Holocaust; the Arab boycott that led his family to move to the United States; his time in Washington Heights,NY; his education at Adat Israel Day School; his time in New Brunswick, NJ, and his enrollment at Rutgers University; volunteering for service in the United States Army in 1941; the antisemitism that he encountered as an observant Jew in the military; his transfer from combat engineers to military intelligence; his time in various training camps before going to Europe; his time in England in 1942; his name change from Merel to Brewster in case of German capture; his time in Paris, France, in June of 1944; his blowing of the shofar at Rosh Hashanah services in Aachen, Germany, in 1944; his role as an interpreter at the investigation of the chief engineer of the Krupp Armaments factory in Germany; the things that he learned about the nature of the Germans; his time at Gardelegen concentration camp in Germany and photographs he has of the camp; his discovery in Gardelegen of a cousin who was one of the inmates near death and the cousin's later immigration to the United States; the condition of the surviving inmates at Gardelegen; his questioning of God during his time at Gardelegen and his struggle with his religious beliefs; and his feelings on teaching the Holocaust. Also contains two photographs of Lee in 1944, one of him in Paris, France, relaxing and one of him in his army uniform; a photograph of him in 1945 with three other soldiers; a photograph of him as a middle aged man; and a photograph of him with his wife and grandchild in 1996.

    Oral history interview with Harold Zelmanovics

    Oral history interview with Harold Zelmanovics

    Oral History

    Harold Zelmanovics, born June 11, 1921 in Svaliava, Ukraine, begins the interview by showing pictures he obtained in 1945 at Dachau concentration camp from the United States Army. He discusses his childhood in Svaliava; his father's imprisonment in a forced labor camp; the cremation of his mother, two brothers and one sister in Auschwitz; his memories of anti-Jewish laws and lack of food after Hungarian occupation; his work as an electrician; his time performing forced labor under the Hungarians; his transport by cattle car to a forced labor camp in Komárom, Hungary; his work in a tunnel; the food that he received each day; claiming to be an electrician as a means of survival; his transport to Budapest, Hungary for forced labor; his eighteen-day cattle car ride to Buchenwald concentration camp; his work repairing cattle cars; his march from Buchenwald to Dachau in April 1945; his liberation by the Americans; his travel to Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); spending 2 to 3 weeks in a hospital; his travel to Sudetenland to live with his uncle; reuniting with his two sisters and one brother; his travel to Bavaria in the American zone; his work for the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration; his marriage in 1945; immigrating to the United States in 1949; his life in New Jersey; his willingness to talk about the Holocaust; and the effect that the Holocaust has had on his faith.

    Oral history interview with Gertrude Lichtenfeld

    Oral history interview with Gertrude Lichtenfeld

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Regina Faigenbaum

    Oral history interview with Regina Faigenbaum

    Oral History

    Regina Faigenbaum, born in Rzeszów, Poland on January 22, 1926, discusses her childhood and family in Rzeszów; her family's move to Sosnowiec, Poland in 1933 as advised by the Pinchever Rebbi; antisemitism in Poland; the school she attended, strictly for Jewish children; her membership in Gordonyah - Makabi ha-tsa'ir, a Zionist youth organization; the move of some of her family to Rzeszów; the Germans arrival in Sosnowiec in 1939; the murder of the most prominent Jews in the town and the transport of others in the town to Auschwitz concentration camp; her father's beard being shaved off during the invasion; her sister being taken for work by the Germans in 1940; a Polish family reporting her to the Germans; her transport to Parschnitz forced labor camp in Czechoslovakia along with her sister; the Appel and the sleeping conditions in Parschnitz; her selection for transfer to Auschwitz; a situation that caused her not to be shipped to Auschwitz; her work in a textile factory and then on a railroad; the dropping of leaflets by American planes just prior to liberation in 1945; staying in the camp until its liberation by the Russians on May 8, 1945; the help that she and her sister received from a Czech mechanic on their way back to Poland after liberation; returning to Sosnowiec after the war and the antisemitism that she experienced there; meeting her future husband in Sosnowiec in 1945; moving to Landsberg am Lech displaced persons camp in the American Zone of Germany; the atrocities committed against the Jews after World War II; a visit by David Ben Gurion to the Landsberg camp to try to bring people to Palestine; her marriage to her husband in 1946; her immigration to the United States in 1949; the welcome she received from the United Jewish Appeal; her life in Newark, NJ; her two children; her current residence in Union, NJ; and her feelings on the lessons to be learned from the Holocaust. Also contains a photograph of Regina in March of 1994 and photocopies of two additional undated photographs.

    Oral history interview with Enock Trencher

    Oral history interview with Enock Trencher

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Rose Lazarus

    Oral history interview with Rose Lazarus

    Oral History

    Rose Lazarus, born on February 15, 1922, discusses her childhood in Yzsina, Czechoslovakia (possibly in Slovakia); her secular and Jewish education in Yzsina; the Jews' relationship with the Gentiles in Yzsina; the unexpected effects that the "German problem" had on her town; the Hungarian occupation of Czechoslovakia; the forcing of all the Jews of Yzsina to leave their homes and gather in a field in 1943 and their subsequent transport to a ghetto in Mátészalka, Hungary; the beating of her mother by a member of the Gestapo; being transported to Auschwitz concentration camp with her family three weeks later; her experience during a selection where she survived, but her mother and younger siblings went to the crematorium; her work in Auschwitz picking up dead bodies; the nightmares that she still has about her time in Auschwitz; her time in Gelsenkirchen, Germany with six hundred other prisoners working in a munitions factory in 1945; the deaths of four hundred prisoners of Auschwitz from American bombs in 1945; going on a death march to Sömmerda, Germany in 1945; her liberation by American troops in April 1945 in Wallertheim, Germany; searching for her brother after liberation in Budapest, Hungary, and learning that he had already immigrated to Switzerland and then to Israel; the reactions of Budapest citizens to survivors after World War II; reuniting with her younger brother in Brno, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic) in 1946; her time in Gabersee displaced persons camp in Germany; immigrating to the United States in 1948; the help that she received from the Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society of America; her constant questioning of her faith due to her Holocaust experiences; and her decision to talk about the Holocaust with her children and others. Four photographs of Rose Lazarus accompany the interview.

    Oral history interview with Leonard Woloski

    Oral history interview with Leonard Woloski

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Hugo Princz

    Oral history interview with Hugo Princz

    Oral History

    Hugo Princz, born on November 20, 1922, discusses his childhood in Slivnik, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia); antisemitism and the anti-Jewish laws in Slivnik; his memories of the Hlinkova Guard; his father's unsuccessful struggle to prove his American citizenship and emigrate from Czechoslovakia; the brutality of the SS; his transport with his family to Majdanek concentration camp in Lublin, Poland; his parents' transport from Majdanek to Treblinka concentration camp in Poland; his transport from Majdanek and time in Auschwitz concentration camp; his brother's selection due to a foot injury while in the Buna factory in Auschwitz III concentration camp; his work for I.G. Farben at Auschwitz; life in the Birkenau concentration camp; his work in the crematoriums at Birkenau; his memories of the gassings; his older brother's escape to Hungary with false papers; the lack of response of the Red Cross; his time in Waldlager concentration camp in Germany near the end of World War II; his liberation from Waldlager in April 1945; his time in Feldafing displaced persons camp in Germany; and his efforts to receive reparations from Germany since his move to the United States in 1946. Also contains a photograph of Hugo Princz as a young teenager and one of him at the time of the interview.

    Oral history interview with Roney Haliczer

    Oral history interview with Roney Haliczer

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Halina Kleiner

    Oral history interview with Halina Kleiner

    Oral History

    Halina Kleiner, born on February 7, 1929 in Częstochowa, Poland, discusses her childhood in Częstochowa; her move, with her mother, to her maternal grandmother's house in Będzin, Poland, at the start of World War II in 1939; her return to Częstochowa; her memories of anti-Jewish laws enforced after 1939; her recollections of the Częstochowa ghetto; her memories of the Częstochowa Judenrat; the liquidation of the Częstochowa ghetto in 1942; her time hiding near Częstochowa; her recollections of obtaining false papers by trading a fur coat; her escape from Częstochowa to Będzin; her time in the Będzin ghetto; her memories of frequent selections; her memories of SS men harassing Jews, including her grandfather; her time in Bolkenhain work camp in Poland; her time in a weaving factory in Landshut, Germany; her time in Grünberg in Schlesien concentration camp in Germany; her memories of SS men abusing prisoners; the death march from Grünberg through Dresden, Germany, and into Czechoslovakia during the winter of 1944; her liberation by American troops in 1945; her time in a hospital in Czechoslovakia after liberation; her memories of American soldiers; and her time in Salzburg displaced persons camp. Also contains a photograph of Sala Parasol, Halina Kleiner's maternal aunt, before the war; a photograph of Itschak Silberschatz, Halina Kleiner's maternal uncle, before the war; a photograph of Hana Silberschatz, Halina Kleiner's maternal grandmother, before the war; a photograph of Bejrisch Silberschatz, Halina Kleiner's maternal grandfather, before the war; a photograph of Sarah and Leibel Silberschatz, Halina Kleiner's maternal uncle and his wife, in the early 1930s; a photograph of Halina Kleiner in 1938; a photograph of Halina Kleiner and her mother in 1939; a photograph of Halina Kleiner and an American soldier, one of her liberators, in 1945; and a photograph of Halina Kleiner, her husband, and her two daughters in 1993.

    Oral history interview with Norman Salsitz

    Oral history interview with Norman Salsitz

    Oral History

    Norman Salsitz (né Naftali Salsitz), born in 1920 in Kolbuszowa, Poland, describes his childhood; antisemitism in secular school; his religious education in Tarnów, Poland; his involvement in a Zionist youth organization; the turning point for Jews in Poland with the death of premier Jósef Piludski in 1935; his feelings of sympathy for his country despite the persecution of the Jews; the German invasion and destruction of Kolbuszowa; his father's role as a supplier of coffee to the Germans occupying Kolbuszowa; his escape to the Russian front when threatened with arrest; his move from the Russian front to Lʹviv, Ukraine; the establishment of a Judenrat in Kolbuszowa; his work for Dr. Leon Anderman, the president of the first Judenrat; working for Twardon, the Gestapo County Leader in Kolbuszowa; his successful efforts to keep his family in Kolbuszowa when Twardon ordered 50 percent of the town's Jews to be moved to Rzeszów, Poland in June 1941; his memories of the establishment of the ghetto in Kolbuszowa; the deportation of the Kolbuszowa Judenrat to Auschwitz concentration camp and their subsequent extermination; the establishment of a second Judenrat, headed by Pashek Rappaport; being transported to a camp in the woods in Pustków, Poland; his memories of V-1 and V-2 rocket experimentation near Pustków; his work for the second Judenrat; his trip from Kolbuszowa to Rzeszów to Kraków to receive an operation from Dr. Rabinowicz for an inner ear infection; his father's murder; Gestapo orders to the Kolbuszowa Judenrat to collect ransoms, back taxes, and debts from the Jews; the deportation of the Kolbuszowa Jews to the Rzeszów ghetto; his work with his brother, Leibush, in Kolbuszowa, for Twardon; his escape from being shot by promising Twardon 25 kilos of coffee; his relationship with and work for Twardon; the daughter of Halberstam, a Hungarian Rabbi, who helped to save Jews by producing falsified documents; the liquidation of the Rzeszów ghetto on November 18, 1942; escaping from the liquidation with Leiser Spielman; living in hiding; participating and leading underground Jewish partisan groups; participating in the Armia Krajowa; the Armia Krajowa leader, Stashek Augustin; his alias as a Christian Pole named Tadeus "Tadek" Jadach which he used to gain entrance into the Armia Krajowa; the liberation by Russians in September 1944; Jews being murdered even after liberation; his service to Poland as an officer in the 59th Army under Marshall Konieff; meeting his future wife, Amalie, in Kraków; the communist regime after World War II; moving to Germany, where he worked for Brichah; immigrating to the United States; his trip to Israel during the 6 Day War to see the liberation of the Western Wall in Jerusalem; his involvement in Jewish organizations; and his numerous trips to Israel between 1949 and 1987.

    Oral history interview with Amalie Salsitz

    Oral history interview with Amalie Salsitz

    Oral History

    Amalie Salsitz, born in Munich, Germany in 1922, discusses her childhood in Stanislawów, Poland (now Ivano-Frankivs'ka, Ukraine); her family's move to Poland; her parents' political activity; life in Stanislawów under Soviet control from September 1939 until June 1941; being indoctrinated into Marxism; her time as a physics and math teacher; the Hungarian invasion of Stanislawów after June 22, 1941; life in Stanislawów under the Hungarians; the mass murder of 12,000 Jews in Stanislawów on October 12, 1941; her mother's and sister's transport from Stanislawów; her life in the Stanislawów ghetto, established in 1941; the Stanislawów Judenrat; her friendship with a Karaite Jew named Mundek; her father's transport to Belzec concentration camp in Poland; her move with Mundek to Halitz (Halych, Ukraine) three weeks after her father's transport; her time in L'vov, Poland (now L'viv, Ukraine); her time in Kraków, Poland from Christmas Eve 1942 onward; meeting up with her father's former boss, Kasimir Jerzenicki, in Kraków; her work in a German household in Kraków; her time in a Kraków hospital for treatment for an inflammation; her time at an office job for the German company, Wilhelm Langert, near Płaszów concentration camp in Poland; a Gestapo man named Müller; obtaining false papers and the adopted name Felicia Milaszewska; her memories of Hans Frank, the Governor-General of Poland; her rise to a position of authority in the company in November 1944; meeting her future husband, Norman Salsitz, while in this job position; and her life, with her husband, in the United States after 1947.

    Oral history interview with Hans Fisher

    Oral history interview with Hans Fisher

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Mike Goldberger

    Oral history interview with Mike Goldberger

    Oral History

    Mike Goldberger, born on February 13, 1921 in Nova Mesto (probably Nové Mesto nad Váhom, Slovakia), discusses being the oldest of five children; his father dying young; going to live with relatives; going to Yeshiva for three years; how antisemitism was a part of life even before the war; being drafted in 1942 at age 21; life in the barracks in Kőszeg in western Hungary; working for the Third Battalion Second company which was actually a labor camp where they built railroads, mines, and bunkers as part of an engineering troop; hardships in the Carpathian Mountains, including no food and no shoes; seeing signs in 1944 that the German army was having problems; deciding to escape with three friends; moving to different villages, ending up in Varmohog [PH] and then Monache [PH] where he made money selling glass to replace all broken windows; spending a few days in a Russian jail before heading home, not really knowing any news about his family; getting married to his wife in March 1946 (they had known each other since they were both seven years old); running a vineyard; paying officers to take them across the border from Hungary to Vienna, Austria to a displaced persons camp; wanting to go to Sweden to see his sister who went there from Bergen-Belsen, but needing to know a trade; going to the Relief Organization in Mannheim, Germany to learn tool making and about blueprints; going to Sweden and then immigrating to the United States once his relatives sent an affidavit; his son who went to the University of Chicago; and his daughter who attend Harvard.

    Oral history interview with John Farinella

    Oral history interview with John Farinella

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Herb Carlson

    Oral history interview with Herb Carlson

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with John Coulston

    Oral history interview with John Coulston

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Gladys Helfgott

    Oral history interview with Gladys Helfgott

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Martha Eckstein

    Oral history interview with Martha Eckstein

    Oral History

    Martha Eckstein, born in 1937 in Kazimierz, Poland (near Warsaw), discusses her father who had a lumber yard; her mother (originally from Czestochowa) who was a pharmacist; living comfortably until 1939, when her family began planning their escape; leaving with their what possessions would fit in their car; being fearful of bombings as they traveled; traveling by train until they reached Siberia in 1940; living in a camp with other Jews in Siberia; the labor camps nearby that people feared; her mother being able to work as a pharmacist while her father stayed at home with Martha; leaving by train and ending up in Bukhara, Uzbekistan; living in one room of a house occupied by other families; attending school and taking piano lessons; her father working as a truck driver for the government until he was caught transporting people from Bukhara to Tashkent and was put in jail; her mother’s work for two years to free him; going to Poland and then Germany circa 1945-1946; receiving help from HIAS; living for a short period of time in Munich while gathering paperwork; going to a displaced persons camp in Bremen; leaving by ship, the “Maria Perch” from Bremerhaven, Germany; arriving at Ellis Island in 1947; staying with her father’s uncle in the Bronx until they were able to get their own apartment on St. John Ave; her father’s work at a sheet metal factory and as a truck driver; her parents later buying a small grocery store; attending Shalom Aleichem Yiddish School; and getting married to a fellow survivor.

    Oral history interview with Dora Schoen

    Oral history interview with Dora Schoen

    Oral History

    Dora Schoen (née Basch), born on July 10, 1919 in Sighet, Romania, describes her family and childhood; being one of six children, including Abraham (b. 1906), Kalman (b. 1909), Roze (b. 1910), brother (b. 1913), and Zelda (b. 1921); her father who was a butcher, and her mother who helped in the butcher shop; helping to deliver meats; working at a lawyer’s office; the Hungarian occupation of Transylvania at the end of August 1930; Jewish lawyers no longer being allowed to practice; the German invasion on March 19, 1944; Germans placing all Jews in ghettos within Sighet in April 1944; the confiscation of all their jewelry; how the Jews were put in groups and told they were being taken to Hungary to work on farms; being put in cattle trains and arriving in Auschwitz on May 14, 1922; being separated from her family and never seeing all but one sister again; going through the selection process; being given a tattoo of the number 87606 and placed in a working barrack; spending two months in Beendorf working in an ammunition factory; being liberated by the Red Cross at the Danish border where she was quarantined and fed; being transported to Landskrona, Sweden; Swedish people being very kind and bringing them clothes; her aunt in the United States sending her money and her surviving brother’s address (he had been in Paris at the time of the German occupation); how her brother and sister Zelda were both back home in Sighet; remaining in Sweden for three years and working as a house mother for 40 people at a clothing factory; receiving letter in 1946 from a relative in Palestine; getting married at the end of April 1948, five days before Israel’s Independence; living in Israel for eight years (1948-1956); not being able to have children; and immigrating to the United States to live near her sister and brother.

    Oral history interview with Elsie Brunstein

    Oral history interview with Elsie Brunstein

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Henry Erlich

    Oral history interview with Henry Erlich

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Bernard Ahrend

    Oral history interview with Bernard Ahrend

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with George Popper

    Oral history interview with George Popper

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Rose Schwartz

    Oral history interview with Rose Schwartz

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Libby Feit

    Oral history interview with Libby Feit

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Hella Bailen

    Oral history interview with Hella Bailen

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Shlomo Biezunski

    Oral history interview with Shlomo Biezunski

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Ida Borenstein

    Oral history interview with Ida Borenstein

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Helena Bokor

    Oral history interview with Helena Bokor

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Lisbeth Brodie

    Oral history interview with Lisbeth Brodie

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Irene Buchner

    Oral history interview with Irene Buchner

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Sol Einhorn

    Oral history interview with Sol Einhorn

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Frieda Fried

    Oral history interview with Frieda Fried

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Lilly Goldberger

    Oral history interview with Lilly Goldberger

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Reubin Weitzman and Milton Goldberg

    Oral history interview with Reubin Weitzman and Milton Goldberg

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Pearl Gruenberg

    Oral history interview with Pearl Gruenberg

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Eddie Harvit

    Oral history interview with Eddie Harvit

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Helen Yomtov Herman

    Oral history interview with Helen Yomtov Herman

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Lucie Jacobson

    Oral history interview with Lucie Jacobson

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Marguerite Jeremias

    Oral history interview with Marguerite Jeremias

    Oral History

    Marguerite Jeremias, born in 1926 in Heidelberg, Germany, describes her family and childhood in Hoffenheim, Germany; the history of the Jewish community of Hoffenheim; her family’s ownership of a dry goods store adjoined to their home; her father’s store which was shuttered for months; their family dog which was shot by the SS in 1933; the store being allowed to reopen in 1935, but no customers would shop; her family’s discussion of immigrating to Palestine; a non-Jewish family that moved into the space above the dry goods store in 1936; commuting to a Jewish day school in Heidelberg by train in 1937; her older sister leaving for the United States after her uncle said he would sponsor her in 1938; Kristallnacht in Heidelberg; the burning of the synagogue in Hoffenheim; the arrest of six Jewish men, including Marguerite’s father; her father’s release from Dachau after five weeks; the violence against Hoffenheim Jews; the antisemitism from children; many Hoffenheim Jews being taken to Gurs concentration camp in 1940; the transfer of people with children from Gurs concentration camp to Rivesaltes concentration camp in April 1941; her father being sent to a men’s work camp; remaining with her mother; being allowed to leave Rivesaltes and live in a Jewish scout home in Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne in April of 1942; officials at Rivesaltes calling for children to return; the Jewish scout leadership keeping the children in the woods in summer of 1942; receiving letters from parents in Rivesaltes; the children being held at a French convent for a month; being transferred to a new convent in Ussel, France; receiving monthly ration cards from the scout leaders; living with a French family and working as their maid; tending to six children; teaching herself French using the children’s school materials; the Nazi’s looking for Jews but Marguerite not being found; liberation in August 1944; receiving new papers; moving to a scout home in October 1944; contacting her sister in the United States; immigrating to the United States in 1946; living in New York City; working in the Garment District; and meeting her husband.

    Oral history interview with Ernest Pollack

    Oral history interview with Ernest Pollack

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Henry Ricklis

    Oral history interview with Henry Ricklis

    Oral History

    Henry Ricklis, born in New Jersey, discusses his brief observations of the liberation of Dachau; being drafted into the US Army; going to basic training at Fort Knox; doing Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP); going overseas and arriving in Le Havre, France in the winter; moving eastward through France, Holland, Belgium, and Germany; arriving in Dachau in 1945; seeing emaciated people; speaking to a few former prisoners who spoke in Yiddish and Polish; seeing primarily men who were gaunt-looking and incoherent; and his feelings of revulsion, disbelief at the camp.

    Oral history interview with Justin Rothschild

    Oral history interview with Justin Rothschild

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Mala Sperling

    Oral history interview with Mala Sperling

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Adam Spiro

    Oral history interview with Adam Spiro

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Cyla Stal

    Oral history interview with Cyla Stal

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Elizabeth Stern-Szollosi

    Oral history interview with Elizabeth Stern-Szollosi

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Lee Weinberg

    Oral history interview with Lee Weinberg

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with David Werdiger

    Oral history interview with David Werdiger

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Ilona Werdiger

    Oral history interview with Ilona Werdiger

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Rosalyn Rueff

    Oral history interview with Rosalyn Rueff

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Lillian Ettinger

    Oral history interview with Lillian Ettinger

    Oral History

    Lillian Ettinger, born in Przemysl, Poland on April 11, 1929, discusses her early family life and schooling; German occupation; her family being moved into the ghetto; working outside the ghetto weeding and digging; taking her sister and mother from the ghetto to Boryslav, Ukraine; traveling with a cousin to Drohobycz, Ukraine; hitchhiking back to Boryslav to stay with the Hirsch family; hiding in a chicken house, attic, and cellar; pretending to be a niece from Kraków, Poland of a gentile woman; Russians recapturing Boryslav, Ukraine; working in a refinery; doing office work; traveling back to Przemysl; meeting the man that became her husband; reuniting with her sister; and immigrating to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Jeanette Ehrlich

    Oral history interview with Jeanette Ehrlich

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Suzanne Winarsky

    Oral history interview with Suzanne Winarsky

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Francis Weisman

    Oral history interview with Francis Weisman

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Dora Roth

    Oral history interview with Dora Roth

    Oral History

    Dora Lampell Roth, born in 1918 in Kraków, Poland, discusses her early life in Kraków; studying history in school and wanting to be pharmacist; getting married in 1937; the beginning of the war; the shooting of her grandmother; the Jewish section of Kraków, which became the ghetto; life in the ghetto; being sent to the Tarnow ghetto; getting food in the ghettos; receiving help from her family’s Gentile maid, who brought them food into the ghetto; the death of her son at the hands of German soldiers; the loss of her husband; being transported to Auschwitz; her arrival at the camp, receiving a tattoo and a striped uniform; life in the camp; conditions in Birkenau; an incident of cruelty in Auschwitz; the attitudes of female guards towards the inmates; giving birth to her son in Munich, Germany; her husband; still experiencing fear because of her experiences during the Holocaust; telling her story to her children; her daughter’s experience when she was hidden as a young child; and her mental state during the Holocaust and her determination to survive.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Friedman

    Oral history interview with Ruth Friedman

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Cecile Seiden

    Oral history interview with Cecile Seiden

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Kamilla Ehre

    Oral history interview with Kamilla Ehre

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Ann Monka

    Oral history interview with Ann Monka

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Edith Kornbluth

    Oral history interview with Edith Kornbluth

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with William Kornbluth

    Oral history interview with William Kornbluth

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Solomon Lasky

    Oral history interview with Solomon Lasky

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Irving Gerenstein

    Oral history interview with Irving Gerenstein

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Zygmunt Lehman

    Oral history interview with Zygmunt Lehman

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with A. Kevin Quinn

    Oral history interview with A. Kevin Quinn

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Fred Schwartz

    Oral history interview with Fred Schwartz

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Aaron Rosenblum

    Oral history interview with Aaron Rosenblum

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Joan Bonder

    Oral history interview with Joan Bonder

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Ada Abrahamer

    Oral history interview with Ada Abrahamer

    Oral History

    Ada Abrahamer, born in Kraków, Poland, recalls the increased restrictions and frightening conditions for Jews until March 1941; her family being moved to the Kraków ghetto was put into forced labor; the liquidation in March 1943 of the ghetto and being taken to the Płaszów camp; continuing to work in the ammunition factory; the brutality of Amon Goeth, the commandant of the camp; the diary she managed to keep throughout these experiences, which she reads from and notes that it was taken from her three times; being sent in October 1943 to Auschwitz; the terrible conditions in Auschwitz and her lasting fear of "lists"; being in the camp for three weeks and then taken to Lichterwerden in Sudetenland for six months; being liberated by the Russians; travelling to Austria and ending up at the Linz displaced persons camp; and going to the United States in 1948.

    Oral history interview with Leo Laufer

    Oral history interview with Leo Laufer

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Karolyn Freud

    Oral history interview with Karolyn Freud

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Michel Thomas

    Oral history interview with Michel Thomas

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Pearl Shames

    Oral history interview with Pearl Shames

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Elbridge Holland

    Oral history interview with Elbridge Holland

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Arnold Herzberg

    Oral history interview with Arnold Herzberg

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Henry Kolber

    Oral history interview with Henry Kolber

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Morris Bergen

    Oral history interview with Morris Bergen

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Pearl Davis

    Oral history interview with Pearl Davis

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Lillian Ross

    Oral history interview with Lillian Ross

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Nathan Schwarcz

    Oral history interview with Nathan Schwarcz

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Susanne Prager

    Oral history interview with Susanne Prager

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Lien Con

    Oral history interview with Lien Con

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Lauryann Friedman

    Oral history interview with Lauryann Friedman

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Nathan Glass

    Oral history interview with Nathan Glass

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Benjamin Katzwer

    Oral history interview with Benjamin Katzwer

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Sarah Osak

    Oral history interview with Sarah Osak

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Julia Altholz

    Oral history interview with Julia Altholz

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Alter Pekier

    Oral history interview with Alter Pekier

    Oral History

    Rabbi Alter Pekier, born in October 1917 in Slutsk, Belarus, discusses being the oldest of five children; attending yeshiva led by Rabbi Aaron Kotler with his brother Berel in Kletsk, Belarus; moving with the yeshiva to Vilna (Vilnius, Lithuania) at the direction of Rabbi Kotler after the Soviet Union occupied eastern Poland; Rabbi Kotler splitting the yeshiva into three smaller yeshivas in March 1940 and dispersing them to smaller towns; Alter and Berel going to Salakas, Lithuania near the Latvian border; the Nazi Germany invasion of Eastern Poland and the USSR in June 1941; Alter’s parents and three siblings being murdered in killing actions in Slutsk; the Soviets deporting Alter and Berel together with other yeshiva students to Reshoti in Siberia; their work clearing forests and building railroads; the Soviets releasing prisoners in October 1941; Alter and Berel moving to Kazakhstan and staying there for five years; receiving care packages from the American Jewish community; getting married in Kazakhstan and returning with his wife to Poland; going to Lodz and organizing a yeshiva for survivors there; fleeing Poland after the Kielce pogrom; going to France; and immigrating to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Bennett Silberstein

    Oral history interview with Bennett Silberstein

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Albert Marzurkiewicz

    Oral history interview with Albert Marzurkiewicz

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Joel Frisch

    Oral history interview with Joel Frisch

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Leo Stahl

    Oral history interview with Leo Stahl

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Herta Erreich

    Oral history interview with Herta Erreich

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Freida Yeager

    Oral history interview with Freida Yeager

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Abraham Shlomowitz

    Oral history interview with Abraham Shlomowitz

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Fred Eisner

    Oral history interview with Fred Eisner

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Aida Brydbord

    Oral history interview with Aida Brydbord

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Martha Klein

    Oral history interview with Martha Klein

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Saul Weinberger

    Oral history interview with Saul Weinberger

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Eliasz Glanz

    Oral history interview with Eliasz Glanz

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Sylvia Wirtzbaum

    Oral history interview with Sylvia Wirtzbaum

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Philip Lederman

    Oral history interview with Philip Lederman

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Stella Rabner

    Oral history interview with Stella Rabner

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Shlomo Weinglas

    Oral history interview with Shlomo Weinglas

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with David Katz

    Oral history interview with David Katz

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Rose Laiter

    Oral history interview with Rose Laiter

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Maurice Rauchweld

    Oral history interview with Maurice Rauchweld

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Leon Faigenbaum

    Oral history interview with Leon Faigenbaum

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Helen Raff

    Oral history interview with Helen Raff

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Musia Luttenger-Gross

    Oral history interview with Musia Luttenger-Gross

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Jack Chevlin

    Oral history interview with Jack Chevlin

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Jerry Miron

    Oral history interview with Jerry Miron

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Richard Tisch

    Oral history interview with Richard Tisch

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Nella Bergen

    Oral history interview with Nella Bergen

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Sam Stimler

    Oral history interview with Sam Stimler

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Eugene Fried

    Oral history interview with Eugene Fried

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Rosalie Klein

    Oral history interview with Rosalie Klein

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Alvin Weinstein

    Oral history interview with Alvin Weinstein

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Henry Landsberg

    Oral history interview with Henry Landsberg

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Herschel Schacter

    Oral history interview with Herschel Schacter

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Celina Rosenblum

    Oral history interview with Celina Rosenblum

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Idek Rosenblum

    Oral history interview with Idek Rosenblum

    Oral History

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