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Oral history interview with Christian Koppenstein

Oral History | Digitized | Accession Number: 2018.76.1 | RG Number: RG-50.030.0957

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    Oral history interview with Christian Koppenstein
    Transcript
    This is a United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
    interview with Mr. Christian Koppenstein on March 24,
    2018 in Overgaard, Arizona.
    Thank you very, very much, Mr. Koppenstein,
    for agreeing to meet with us and speak with us
    and share some of your story with us today.
    It's my honor to have you do this.
    Well, thank you.
    It's ours as well.
    So the only thing that I would like
    is for you to ask the questions, and I
    try to answer them the best way that I know how.
    OK.
    Thank you.
    And you know, that's what we'll start with.
    We'll start with the very basic questions from the beginning.
    And from there your story will develop.
    So the very first question I have
    is can you tell me the date of your birth?
    My date is October 20, 1936.
    October 20, 1936.
    And what was your name at birth?
    When you were born, what was your name?
    Christian Koppenstein.
    Did you have a middle name?
    No.
    OK.
    Where were you born?
    When?
    Where.
    Where?
    Germany, at a colony between Romania and Russia.
    And they called it Bessaabia.
    And that's where I was born.
    What was the name of the place within Bessarabia
    that you were born?
    Fundu Sarasika.
    Fundu Sarasika.
    Yes.
    And when you say Germany had a colony,
    did that mean that Germany ruled over this place,
    or it just was that it was colonized by German people?
    It was colonized by the people.
    OK.
    About how long had German people been in this part of the world?
    As far as my knowledge, since the 1700s.
    OK.
    And how did they get there?
    I think the way I understand is they
    had even different countries, they
    come over there to live there in that area
    because it was not ruled by Russia or by Romania.
    So basically, it was ruled by the German people
    that lived there.
    Oh, I had always thought that this
    was some place that was ruled by Russia originally,
    by Catherine the Great, who invited settlers.
    She invited people basically from different countries
    that wanted to live there, and they were not all Germans.
    But they were also from different countries.
    So did you have neighbors who had different nationalities?
    No.
    OK.
    That particular town or village, what they called it
    was kind of on its own.
    And different villages had different people ruling,
    whatever they were doing.
    When you were born in 1936, what country
    was this part of the world included in?
    Well, I don't know about different countries
    because they were basically on their own merits.
    So it was self-rule.
    And the basic rule was they were ruled by Germany.
    OK.
    Can we cut for a second?
    OK.
    I stopped the camera because I was a little confused.
    I was under the impression that Bessarabia
    was part of another country, not Germany,
    because in the book that you wrote that you self-published
    was a sentence where you said your father had served
    in the Romanian army.
    So if it wasn't part of Romania, why
    would he have to serve in that army?
    That come a little bit later on because my father also
    was in the Russian army before that.
    Was he?
    Yes.
    And then Romania took over, so they kind of intervened
    or whatever to rule that.
    But the main fact still was it was still
    ruled from Germany because the Russian queen was German.
    And so that's how that came about.
    So you're talking about 200 years ago,
    when the Russian Queen was Catherine the Great, who
    was originally German.
    I see.
    OK.
    Let's go on a little bit.
    We'll, I think, clarify things as we go along.
    Tell me, what was your father's name?
    Reinhold Koppenstein.
    Reinhold Koppenstein.
    And he did not have a middle name, either.
    Do you know what year he was born in?
    Yes.
    What was that?
    In 1911.
    1911.
    And your mother, what was her name?
    She was [NON-ENGLISH].
    [NON-ENGLISH].
    That was her maiden name.
    Yes.
    And what was her first name, her given name?
    Gosh.
    I know, I've kind of caught you.
    She was mama, wasn't she?
    She was my mother, period.
    Yeah.
    It'll come to you.
    Emma.
    What?
    Emma.
    Emma.
    Yes.
    And did you have any brothers and sisters?
    I had one brother.
    He was three years younger than me.
    And then I had a sister who was born in 1941.
    OK.
    So your brother was born in 1939 and your sister
    was born in 1941.
    Yes.
    Do you know the year that your mother was born in?
    Yes.
    What was that?
    1914.
    1914.
    That's why they got a little mixed up.
    Yes.
    And tell me this.
    Your parents, then, sound like they
    were quite young when they started having a family.
    They were.
    Did you ever know how they met and how
    they got to know each other?
    They would never talk about that.
    And the basic fact is I never did know for sure.
    OK.
    Were they from the same village?
    No, they were from different villages, both of them.
    OK.
    Your mother, do you know the village that she was from?
    No, I can't remember.
    OK.
    And your father?
    He was pretty close to Fundu Sarasika
    because when he got older, a little bit older,
    my grandfather moved there.
    OK.
    And how did they put food on the table?
    How did your father put food on the table?
    What did he do for a living?
    My father was a farmer.
    And at that point we had 600 hectares.
    That's huge.
    That is huge.
    It's just about two and 1/2 to to one.
    So two and 1/2 acres to one hectare.
    So if we do the math, we're talking about--
    About over 1,000.
    Yeah.
    Yeah.
    Now had that farm come to him through his father,
    or had he purchased it?
    He purchased that himself because my grandfather
    died in 1936.
    The year of your birth.
    Before, about a year before.
    So I never got to know him at all.
    Did you know your grandmother on your father's side?
    Yes.
    What was her name, besides grandma?
    Besides grandma, I can't really remember right this minute.
    OK.
    But it was also Koppenstein as her last name.
    Yes, that was her last name.
    Did your father have brothers and sisters?
    Yes, 11.
    11?
    11.
    Brothers and sisters.
    And did they live in the same village?
    Till they were old enough to leave then,
    and they went elsewhere into different places.
    Within Bessarabia?
    Yes.
    OK.
    So everybody stayed within Bessarabia.
    Yes.
    Did you get to know any of your aunts and uncles?
    I knew just about all of them.
    OK.
    Did they visit, and did you visit them?
    I did, yes.
    But it was hard by wagon and horses.
    And basically that was our own way of transportation
    was horses.
    Did anybody own a car?
    No.
    At that point I didn't even know what there
    was such a thing as a car.
    Really.
    Really.
    Well, that's common for Eastern Europe.
    That was common.
    In many villages, when a car would drive through,
    I was told, all the little boys would
    run after it because it was so interesting,
    it would be an event.
    The only car that I can remember is there were trucks and stuff
    like that.
    That happened in the 1940s.
    So after the war starts, that's when you see that.
    The war started in the '30s.
    That's right.
    That's right.
    Well, yeah.
    What was the language everybody spoke at home?
    What they called [NON-ENGLISH].
    [NON-ENGLISH]?
    Yes.
    It's different than the normal German language
    that is out there now.
    That come at a later date.
    So you grew up surrounded by [NON-ENGLISH]..
    Yes.
    And let's choose a sentence.
    Let's choose a sentence.
    The forest around us is green.
    How would you say that in [NON-ENGLISH]??
    Gosh, I can't even remember a whole lot of German anymore.
    Oh, really?
    Because I wanted to find out what's the difference saying it
    in [NON-ENGLISH],, as you grew up,
    from the kind of German people would speak today?
    Like a lot of things, you know, like potatoes or something like
    that, even there, at the [NON-ENGLISH],,
    they had different ways of saying it.
    So normally, it would be [GERMAN]..
    Yes.
    How would you say it in [NON-ENGLISH]??
    Gosh, I can't remember at this minute, either.
    Oh, that's OK.
    When grandma's name comes to you,
    she'll be carrying some of those potatoes.
    It happens.
    It happens.
    These are details, but I'm trying
    to paint a picture of what was your life like
    and how did people communicate, and what was that world like.
    The language is not that far apart
    from what they call the regular German that
    is being spoken now.
    But the difference was just slightly.
    And you could always understand basically
    what you were asking for.
    OK.
    OK.
    That's important.
    That's important to know.
    But did you have a dialect or an accent
    that, when you did come across other Germans in Germany
    later on in your life, they could
    tell you weren't from there?
    Yes, there was.
    Just about the same as my English is today.
    And it's not really--
    you have a dialect that a lot of people
    would understand what you're saying,
    but it's still a hidden kind of situation.
    OK.
    Let's go back to the farm that your father bought,
    all those 600 hectares.
    Did he work it alone?
    Did he have help?
    He had quite a few men thaat would work there,
    and also had a couple of ladies that were helping my mother.
    Well, that's a huge farm.
    Yes, it was.
    Describe it for me a little bit.
    What kind of animals did you keep?
    Mostly cows and horses.
    Did you ever participate in any of the work
    as a little little kid?
    Oh, yes, always.
    What were the things you liked to do?
    Well, basically, I got on a horse when I was very young,
    and a lot of times go and get the cows to be milked
    and stuff like that.
    And a lot of times got the well and got the water.
    The well that we had was quite deep,
    but I managed to get some water out of it.
    Well, you know, we're talking about the years
    when you are just a little bit more than a toddler.
    If you're born in 1936, there's not a whole lot
    that a little boy age three or four can do.
    But they can be interested in things.
    I was very interested in everything.
    Yeah?
    Did you like following your father around
    as he was doing his chores?
    Yes, I was.
    I was always outside.
    And as far as being in the house,
    I was not much interested.
    I felt like I was being--
    I don't know what exactly to call it--
    to be confined.
    Yeah.
    Well, a farm can be a very fascinating place
    for a little kid.
    It is.
    What were some of the things that you
    were the most interested in when you were little about the farm?
    Just about everything that went on.
    Really?
    Yeah?
    Yes.
    I'm a very nosy person, and I still am.
    So tell me some of the things that
    would go on because a lot of people who will be listening
    to this don't know the first thing about farming
    and don't know the first thing of what
    it takes to have a farm run.
    Well, you have to know your animals,
    for one thing for sure.
    And if you want to plant crops, you also
    need to know what to do with the land.
    You had to plow it, harrow it, plant it.
    And then hopefully it rained enough and stuff
    to where it would come up and grow into wheat or sug
    beets or any of those things, whatever your planted.
    What is it that your father planted?
    He had a lot of wheat and barley and oats.
    And of course, a lot of potatoes.
    Oh, yeah.
    Potatoes are some of the mainstays.
    Yes.
    And of course, my mother at the garden,
    which grew a lot of vegetables and things like that as well.
    Did you have fruit trees?
    Yes.
    What kind?
    We had apples, pears, cherries, and plums.
    Were you self-sufficient?
    Yes, pretty much.
    Did your father have a mill for the wheat
    to make it into flour?
    No.
    He brought it someplace else?
    He took it to the flour mill, where they were grinding it up
    and made flour out of the wheat.
    With 600 hectares, that's more than just feeding the family.
    Who did he sell the excess to?
    Took it to the village.
    And there were always buyers there
    that would buy basically everything because there's
    a lot of people had no idea where does stuff come from.
    Of course.
    Of course.
    Were their market days in the village?
    Yes.
    You know, lot of times like what you called Saturday market
    or something in that effect.
    And they had a lot of that going on.
    But my father never was one to hang around
    very much because he sold it to some brokers,
    and then they would distribute whatever was available.
    So that's a difference, because some farmers who
    have more land, more produce, a market day is retail.
    It's not wholesale.
    No, it's not.
    Yeah.
    Did your mother ever take anything to market?
    Oh, yes.
    She did a lot of that as well, loaded up
    big wagon full of stuff and hauled it to the village.
    What were some of the things that she had grown or made
    that she would sell?
    Gosh, I can't remember all of it.
    She basically just, about all the vegetables that she could.
    And being anything over the winter time over there,
    that was quite impossible because it was quite cold.
    Did they prepare food for the winter?
    Yes.
    Did you ever help in that or see how it was done?
    Usually when they would butcher an animal, then
    the first thing they would do, they would smoke it.
    And then a lot of it, they would hang it
    in the rafters in the house.
    And it kind of was preserved that way.
    Why would it be hung on rafters in the house?
    Well, animals, mice, rats, stuff like that.
    So that they couldn't get to it.
    So they couldn't get to it at all.
    Did you have any pets?
    Yes, we did.
    I had a German shepherd dog.
    What was his name?
    Just a dog.
    Just a dog.
    Didn't have one.
    OK.
    Did you name any of the animals?
    No.
    Basically, there's too many.
    Too many.
    Tell me a little bit about the house,
    what did the house look like that you lived in,
    from your memory?
    It was basically a single story house.
    But the roof was quite steep and had
    slats which was made of straw.
    So it was a straw roof, a steep pitched roof.
    Pitched roof.
    What were the walls made of?
    Some old timber.
    So it was wooden.
    Wooden.
    Wooden.
    And the floors?
    They were also wood.
    How was the place heated?
    Wood stove.
    Not coal, wood.
    Wood.
    Wood.
    And how many rooms did the house have?
    That particular house, we had approximately,
    I believe, about six or seven rooms.
    That's quite large.
    Well, we had a lot of people that lived there
    and they stayed in our house.
    So it was just a big family affair.
    When you say a lot of people who lived there,
    does that mean the hired help?
    Yes.
    An we also had what they called a summer kitchen.
    OK.
    Where was the summer kitchen?
    Which was a house on its own, which
    they would use in the summer when it was quite warm,
    and that way they kept the house quite cool.
    OK.
    Well, that makes sense.
    I wouldn't have thought that, but of course,
    without air conditioning in the heat, who
    wants to cook and warm up a house when
    it can be hot outside?
    If you want a drink of water, sometimes you
    could break the ice first, and then you
    could get a drink of water.
    That was in the house.
    In the winter.
    Yes.
    It could get that cold.
    It was quite cold, yes.
    Did you have any electricity?
    There was no such thing as electricity.
    OK.
    How did you provide light when it would get dark?
    We had candles for the most part, or some oil lamps.
    And then later on, we had some carbide lights.
    What are carbide lights?
    A carbide is about as big around as your finger,
    and then you could turn it down into the water
    and then it create a gas.
    And then you would burn that.
    It was quite dangerous in one way,
    but it was quite efficient.
    Describe the village a little bit for me.
    Was it a village where everybody knew everybody?
    For the most part, yes.
    Do you know about how many families
    would have been living there?
    Probably about 30 or 40 families.
    So that might be a couple hundred people all told.
    Yes.
    Did it have a store, like a general store?
    It did.
    But it was very limited because everything
    they got they had to go and transport it in by horses.
    By horses.
    And was there such a thing as a baker,
    or did everyone bake their own bread?
    Everyone baked their own stuff.
    OK.
    And there wasn't like a communal baker
    where you would prepare your loaf and bring it
    and they would bake it.
    No.
    OK.
    Was there a church?
    Yes.
    We had a church.
    Basically, everybody went there.
    We only had one church in that village.
    What denomination was it?
    Lutheran.
    Lutheran.
    So you were born into and brought up
    in the Lutheran faith.
    Yes.
    Was your family very religious?
    They all knew what the Bible was,
    and they could all read it.
    And basically that's what it was.
    On Sundays they kind of got together in the village.
    And us, like being out on the farms,
    we did go into the village, but not every Sunday.
    In your book, I think you mentioned
    that there wasn't a minister attached to the village,
    but that you had a traveling minister sometimes.
    Yes, sometimes.
    And sometimes it was just people that go up there.
    And they were not being a minister,
    but they would go and talk about the religious parts of it.
    So they would hold the services.
    They would hold the services themselves.
    Yes.
    Was there a school?
    There was.
    But right there in that village, I never went to school there.
    You never went to school there.
    You were too little.
    I was too young.
    But I did know how to cheat about wanting to go somewhere.
    What do you mean?
    You mean like when you wanted to play hooky?
    Something like that, yes.
    Well, I think that's part and parcel of being a kid,
    you know, particularly a little boy.
    Little boys play hooky.
    Back in them days, that was probably the only time
    I was a boy.
    Tell me a little bit about your parents personalities.
    What kind of nature did your mother have, for example?
    My mother was a very mild lady in one way
    and very tough in another.
    OK.
    Explain that to me.
    For one thing, the religion kind of
    dictated to where she was because if you'd
    done something wrong, we also knew what a belt was.
    And so you get educated very nicely in that direction.
    Did that happen often?
    No, not to me.
    because I did not like the belt and I did not like
    to get into trouble anyway.
    So you were a good kid.
    I tried.
    OK.
    And was she the one who then administered the belt when
    it had to be administered?
    Not really.
    My father was the one that done the real damage.
    OK.
    He was the disciplinarian.
    Yes.
    Let's turn to him.
    What kind of a personality did he have?
    He was very soft spoken.
    But his word was law, and that's the way it went.
    And sometimes I could hear the two arguing
    about certain things, but it didn't
    matter on the end results.
    He was still the law.
    OK.
    Since he had so many siblings, was he
    amongst the youngest or the oldest, or where was he?
    He was just about right in the middle.
    And he had older brothers and older sisters.
    And then he also had younger brothers and sisters.
    So he was somewhere in the middle of 11 children.
    After your grandfather died, where did your grandmother
    live, your paternal grandmother?
    Did she move?
    She stayed with us.
    She moved in with you.
    Yes.
    OK.
    And now let's turn to your mother's side of the family.
    She came from a different village, you said.
    Yes.
    Did she have brothers and sisters?
    Yes, she did.
    And how many, do you know?
    I think they had 12.
    Oh my goodness.
    Oh my goodness.
    And did you know that side of the family, too?
    Yes, I did.
    Oh my goodness.
    Your house was never empty, was it?
    No.
    But they had a farm on their own,
    and my grandfather was a blacksmith.
    And so he had other things going as well.
    Well, that sounds like it could have been an interesting thing
    to see.
    I Enjoyed?
    Being with him because I also learned
    what he was doing as a kid.
    It's fascinating.
    And right now I have a grandson that
    wants to follow in the similar position.
    But I don't know for sure where he
    wants to go yet because he's still going to college.
    So he would like to do something like ironworks?
    Yes.
    That can be quite creative.
    It really can be.
    Some beautiful things are done with ironworks.
    I will show you a little tiny thing
    that he made for me already.
    OK.
    I'd love to see it.
    I'll show it to you later.
    Thank you.
    So your maternal side of the family,
    did you visit them or did they come to visit you?
    Both ways.
    Both ways.
    So they must have lived fairly close by,
    that you would be visiting them.
    Well, sometimes it took almost all day
    to get where they lived, and same the other way.
    Do you remember the town or the village they lived in?
    No, I can't remember that anymore.
    Do you knowif your village ever had a name in another language,
    or was it always Fundu Sarasika, you said?
    Fundu Sarasika.
    Fundu Sarasika
    Yeah.
    As far as my knowledge of it, that was the only one.
    And if anybody wants to look it up on the internet,
    that was the one that you still have to use now.
    OK.
    Did you have playmates your age at that time?
    We had a neighbor.
    And their kids were slightly older than me.
    And we had a game going.
    What would that be?
    We had an apple tree, and so did they.
    And the whole fruit was all red all inside.
    It's a very nice trees.
    They were quite large.
    So we had this game, and we went over to their place
    to get some of those apples that we could eat,
    and they'd come over to our place and get them.
    Because the apple is greener on the other side.
    Well, that's not exactly what our neighbor said to my dad.
    He said, I think stolen apples must taste better.
    Not that we needed it, but we just did it.
    Did you get into trouble for this?
    No.
    No.
    It was just a fun game.
    Well, and there must have been enough apples to go around.
    Both of them, they were very huge.
    Were there ever strangers who would come into town?
    Occasionally.
    Who would they be?
    They called them gypsies.
    Now what they were, I have no idea.
    OK.
    But did you see any of them, like Roma and gypsies?
    Describe what they looked like.
    I don't know.
    Just like-- to me, at that time, they looked like anybody else.
    Did they dress differently?
    Yeah.
    They kind of had--
    on their own way, they made their own clothes and stuff
    like that.
    And whenever they come over to your place,
    if you were not there specifically,
    they would take some stuff.
    And then they would also leave some stuff.
    Oh, really?
    It was more of a trade than it was a theft.
    And nobody minded that at all.
    And would they hang around for a while,
    or would be just like passing through?
    Just passing through.
    Did anybody in the village have a radio?
    No, because basically they had no batteries.
    They had no electricity or any of those kind of things.
    And so they did not have a radio.
    How did people find out about what was going on
    in the outside world?
    Just talk.
    Word of mouth.
    Yes.
    And were there newspapers?
    Not to my knowledge, not there.
    Was there a library?
    No.
    OK.
    What buildings?
    We talked about a church and a general store
    and a marketplace.
    Were there any other kinds of buildings
    that were sort of like community buildings in the village?
    Not that I can remember at all.
    Not there.
    So when you were that little, and your parents were working,
    both of them quite hard, but having help from hired help,
    was your hired help also German?
    Yes.
    So the same language amongst everybody.
    Yes.
    All right.
    I can't imagine that as a three-year-old,
    you would have heard conversations
    that had to deal with politics.
    There was no politics, to my knowledge, anyway.
    And as far as my parents, they never
    talked much but anything other than the working that
    had to be done on the farm.
    Were they storytellers?
    No.
    No.
    So they didn't tell you stories of their own childhood.
    No.
    That was a misfortune on my part.
    Well, it sounds like the life sounds good.
    It sounds like you were well to do.
    For farmers, 600 hectares is a lot.
    But that there is also very little time, that they're busy.
    They never had much time.
    That was from daylight to dark.
    So did you get to know any of the hired help?
    I knew all of them.
    And did they come also from the village,
    or were they from further away?
    I have no idea where they all come from
    or any of those things because to me, they were just
    people that helped my parents.
    OK.
    OK.
    Tell me a little bit about--
    oh, I just had a question, and it went that way.
    It happens.
    Oh, yes, I know what I wanted to ask about.
    You said your father served in the Russian Army.
    Yes, he did.
    How did that happen and when did that happen?
    If he's born in 1911, that means he's military age by 1931,
    something like that.
    Maybe a little bit before.
    Somewhere about '31, '32, maybe.
    So this is before your birth.
    Yes.
    And did he ever tell you how that
    happened that he served in-- it would
    have been the Soviet Army.
    Yes, it was.
    Did he ever tell you about that?
    Not very much ever, because my parents never talked about much
    of anything that would even matter in my life
    or any of those things.
    They just mentioned that he served in it.
    Yes.
    Do you think he was drafted?
    Yes, I know he was, because he wouldn't have never went
    because he was not what you would call a military man.
    He never was.
    Tell me about that.
    Well, I don't know much about the Russian situation,
    except that he talked to our neighbor occasionally,
    and I heard some of that about some of the horrible things
    that he had to do as a Russian soldier.
    And then Romania took over Bessarabia,
    and I don't know the political stuff what was going on.
    And we basically didn't much care.
    And then he went into the Romanian Army.
    And to this day I have a picture of my dad in the Romanian
    uniform.
    And my grandfather in 1935--
    that was before I was born--
    got a visa to go into the Romanian army to go
    see my father.
    And my mother thought--
    his name was Christian, the same as myself--
    and she thought that visa was mine.
    Was yours?
    That's what she was thinking about.
    But it actually was a visa for my grandfather
    to go see my father in the Romanian army.
    So your father was stationed someplace else.
    Yes.
    And all of this is happening before you were born.
    Yes.
    That's the only thing that I got is
    I got my father's picture of the Romanian army.
    Do you have that visa still?
    Yes, I have.
    Oh, maybe we could look at it later because that's
    very interesting as a document.
    So do you think he was also drafted into the Romanian army?
    Yes, he was.
    That I'm sure because like I said,
    he was not a military man.
    Parents have things that are important to them, values
    that they think are important to them
    that they want their children to understand.
    What are some of those values that
    were important to your father?
    My father had very little of that kind of stuff.
    But my mother always tried to carry as many pictures
    as she could possibly do during all of the later on situations.
    How she kept all of those pictures and whatnot,
    I have no knowledge.
    She just kept them.
    So it was important for her to kind of
    have some sense of what your identity is, who are
    the people you're connected to.
    Here are their photographs.
    Here is a document, or something like that.
    Yes.
    But you say your father was not a military man in a very
    definitive way.
    So something tells me that that was transmitted to you.
    And I'm trying to get a sense of what
    were the values in your father that that made him like that?
    The farm because he had a big farm back then.
    And then later on, then, when we had to move away from there,
    the only thing that we could keep
    was stuff that we could carry.
    There was no horses, no nothing, just whatever you could carry.
    That's the only thing.
    OK.
    So the things he valued was his farm.
    That was his world.
    Was his life.
    Then later on, the same.
    He was also, then, later on in the German army,
    and he didn't like that, either.
    Well, we'll come to that.
    But I'm still focused now about your first years
    before any war, before any changes.
    Did you ever see any soldiers coming through town of anybody?
    Yes.
    Well, not so much in town, just passed our farm.
    And in one way, I was kind of fascinated
    at a young child about the uniform
    and those kind of things.
    But it was not something I would have been interested in at all.
    Well, most little boys find uniforms interesting.
    So do you know what army those soldiers were part of?
    Yes.
    What army was that?
    Well, the difference and the colors
    and whatever in the uniforms, and the different dress
    and thast type of thing.
    And just knowing where my father was and what it would be.
    And I also have a picture of my father with a Romanian uniform.
    Yes.
    Do you have any photos of him in any other uniform?
    No.
    Not even the German ones, because we were not
    allowed to have cameras or any of those things later on.
    When you were still little living in Fundu--
    Sarasika.
    Sarasika.
    I keep forgetting the second part.
    I forget it, too, occasionally.
    You say that in peacetime, there were soldiers
    who would sometimes come by.
    Yes.
    Were they Romanian army soldiers?
    Either one.
    There for a while, it was the Russian, and then later
    on the Romanian.
    OK.
    So you saw Soviet soldiers.
    Yes.
    Interesting.
    Very interesting.
    Did anything happen when there were Soviet soldiers around?
    No.
    Anything happen when there were Romanian soldiers around?
    Not at that time, no.
    OK.
    So life was pretty much like it always had been.
    Yes.
    Did anybody in the village seem nervous,
    or life just kept on going?
    Everybody just done their own thing.
    And that's the way life was at that time.
    They worked from daylight to dark,
    and they didn't care much about anything else.
    So tell me, when did things start to change?
    What happened when things really started to change in your life?
    In my life, things started to change in 1941.
    When you're five years old.
    Yes.
    We had to move away from that place.
    How?
    Why?
    Because Russia wanted that property, and I guess the war
    was starting to start for the Second World War
    already in the upper '30s.
    And of course, we didn't know much about that.
    But we had to move because--
    Who told you to move?
    The German SS.
    So the German SS.
    That was the Third Army.
    That was the Third Army, but my father
    was not there yet at that time.
    So the German SS, or the Germans,
    the German army comes into your part of the world.
    Yes.
    And they told us that we can't take nothing out
    of that village whatsoever.
    And to this day, I could probably claim that property,
    but I would have to live there where we were.
    And still to this day, there is no electricity.
    There is no facilities whatsoever.
    Have you ever been back?
    No.
    My cousin, she's from Canada right now.
    Her and a couple of her--
    my mother's sisters, they went over there through the church.
    And they found our place that used to be.
    And they said the only thing that remains there is the well.
    Really.
    So the house is gone.
    Everything is gone.
    Summer kitchen is gone, the barn is gone.
    Everything.
    Everything.
    There's nothing there but the well.
    Does anybody live there in the village?
    Not after we all had to move, no.
    So it became abandoned.
    Yes.
    A completely abandoned place.
    That's right.
    And nobody ever moved into it.
    Can't.
    Why not?
    If you want to live around with wolves and stuff like that,
    it would be great.
    But was there any government that prevented people
    from living there?
    Yes, the Russian.
    Right now it's all Russian, or they call it Moldova now.
    Ah, Moldova.
    OK.
    So Bessarabia is synonymous with Moldova.
    Yes, it is now.
    Yes.
    And there is a part of Moldova called Transnistria which
    is very contested territory between the Russians
    and the Moldovans.
    Yes.
    OK.
    But then that part of the world would be
    under the Moldovan government.
    I would believe so, yes.
    OK.
    Well, do you remember when the SS came to your house
    and told you to leave?
    They told everybody.
    They had a community meeting, and they
    said either you move now, or you wind up in Siberia.
    So in other words, they were saying
    what would happen to you, not what they would do,
    but what would happen to you if you didn't know.
    If you didn't move, yes.
    OK.
    Well, this sounds like it was around the time
    when Germany and the Soviet Union no longer were allies.
    Basically, they still were at that time.
    They still were.
    So do you remember from later the date that you moved?
    Do you remember the year and the month?
    I don't know the month, but the year was in 1941.
    Was it springtime?
    I'm not quite sure.
    But we had to go and walk wherever we needed to go to.
    And then they put us in a truck.
    And then we wound up in Poland.
    If you could only take what you could carry,
    what did you carry?
    What did you take with you?
    Mostly clothes, I believe.
    And your mother and father?
    Well, there were two siblings that were pretty young.
    So somebody carried them.
    Somebody carried them.
    Did you or grandparents go with you?
    They had to go on their own.
    That's your mother's father and mother.
    Yes.
    What about grandma from your father's side?
    She went along with one of my father's brothers.
    Who was also from that village?
    Yes.
    So we all wound up, eventually, in Poland, which
    was we were quarantined there.
    We couldn't go anywhere.
    We couldn't go to town or any of those kind of things.
    Excuse me.
    I'm going to go back a little bit.
    You said you went by truck?
    They had trucks at that time.
    And so they let us get into the trucks.
    I mean, they were very nonfunctional stuff.
    But anyway, they finally got us where we needed to go.
    You never got on a train.
    Not at that point, no.
    As far as I know, I didn't even know there
    was such a thing as a train.
    And then we wound up in Poland.
    So do you know what part of Poland you wound up in?
    It was pretty much on the northern end of Poland.
    In that quarantine camp.
    Yes.
    So that's quite a journey.
    It was.
    Do you know how long it took?
    I can't remember that anymore, either.
    Was the truck covered?
    No.
    So it was an open truck.
    Open truck.
    And how many people did it fit?
    I can't remember that, either.
    But anyway, it was pretty well loaded down.
    And they had a lot of them.
    And then my father decided we were
    supposed to get a farm in Poland according
    to the SS or whatever.
    They said you can be reimbursed.
    For the farm that you gave up.
    That we had.
    And unfortunately, I guess, according to all politics,
    that never happened.
    So my father went and bought another farm in Poland.
    So he had some money.
    Well, he had some money, yes.
    And I have no idea what the cost for any of those things were.
    So he bought a farm.
    And then we started farming again.
    But let's stop at the quarantine bit
    because you say you were in this place
    where you were quarantined.
    Yes.
    And was it a place that was like surrounded by either a wall
    or a wire or a fence?
    A just big building.
    And there are records around it, and you could not
    leave the grounds.
    Do you know why you were there?
    Because they didn't have any place for the people to go.
    And so they kept them there until they found out
    what they really wanted to do with all the people.
    OK.
    So I'm trying to get a sense of whether
    or not, when you talk about the SS
    and they tell you that you've got to leave,
    it sounds like you don't have much choice in the matter.
    Well, we did.
    You could've stayed.
    We could have stayed and wound up in Siberia.
    Did you know of anybody who did stay?
    Yes.
    And what happened to them?
    Eventually they had to leave there
    because there was no food or anything like that.
    And they were kind of shirttail relation because the brother
    that my father's sister married, it was the brother to him
    that stayed.
    And then eventually they had to leave Siberia.
    And they didn't let them leave.
    They just went on the black market and got out that way.
    So the threat was real.
    It was very real, yes.
    So if you stay, then you will be deported.
    So this was, in some senses, an evacuation.
    Basically, yes.
    But to a small child, when you're not
    given a whole lot of choice, it's
    just this is what you have to do.
    It probably didn't feel like an evacuation.
    Well, it didn't because it was just,
    OK, we're going to go to another place.
    Did your parents talk about any of this on the way,
    or were they silent?
    Or what was their demeanor?
    They talked very little about any of it.
    They just figured that's what they had to do,
    and that's what they did.
    And so you're in this quarantine place in Poland, which
    sounds like a holding place.
    A holding tank, you might say.
    Yeah-- like a holding company, but different--
    until it's figured out what happens with all the people.
    Yes.
    About how long were you there?
    To my knowledge, we were probably
    there about three or four months.
    That's quite a while.
    It was quite a while.
    And was your family all together in that quarantined area?
    Yes.
    So you were together?
    Somewhat, yes.
    So it wasn't like the men were split from the women
    or kept apart.
    It was that, too.
    It was both.
    It was both.
    The men were in one building and the women
    were in another building.
    And where were you?
    I was with the men.
    OK.
    You were old enough that you were included.
    And so was my brother.
    Oh, and he was really little.
    Yes, he was.
    And at that time, I had a little sister that was born there.
    She was born in the quarantine facility?
    Yes.
    Oh, your poor mama.
    I called her a Polack.
    You called her what?
    A Polack, which is not a very nice thing to say.
    No.
    No, it isn't.
    But if you want to tease your sister, you'll find a way.
    Always find a way.
    What was her real name?
    Lily.
    Lily.
    Well, yeah, but I'm thinking of your mother.
    And it must not have been easy to be uprooted and carry
    a baby inside, and then maybe another on your arms.
    And did your father work while he was there?
    Did you do anything?
    or?
    Was it like everybody hung around
    during the day just waiting to hear
    what would happen with them?
    That part of it I can't remember.
    But I know he was gone just about every day.
    But then at night, he'd come over there and be with us.
    Did they give you rations?
    Yes, they did.
    Anddo you know what they were like?
    I mean, do you remember them?
    As far as I can remember, it was mostly soup.
    And I'm not quite sure if I'd feed it to some animals now.
    Not very good soup.
    No.
    So was this the first time that you tasted food
    that didn't taste very good?
    Yes.
    But I learned how to maneuver to keep my stomach full,
    if I could.
    How did you maneuver?
    How did you do that?
    Well, I was kind of crafty sort of a guy.
    And whenever I could find a cook somewhere or anything
    like that, I went over there and I wanted to help,
    which sometimes they did just for the fun of it.
    But that's pretty resourceful.
    It kind of kept your stomach filled.
    Yeah.
    When you think of it, a five-year-old,
    to have his wits about him to be able to go and figure out a way
    when you know that your parents are helpless to help.
    That's right.
    That speaks for that little kid.
    I'm still that way.
    So are there any other memories that you
    remember from that sort of quarantined area?
    No, all I remember is there were great big huge buildings.
    And as far as I could remember anything at all,
    it had more than two or three stories high.
    And the only thing that I knew is
    this building was for the men, and I could go there.
    This was for the ladies, stay out.
    Was there electricity there?
    No.
    How was it heated?
    With some coal stoves and wood, stuff like that.
    Did it have a name?
    I never did know, and I don't really care.
    I just wanted to get out of there.
    And I was very happy when my father bought another farm
    and we moved over there.
    Was that place far from the holding camp, the farm?
    It took you about almost two days to get there.
    And how did you get there?
    My father had bought a couple of horses.
    And so we used them.
    As far as my parents were concerned, walk.
    So the kids, you and your brother, are on the horses,
    and your parents walked alongside.
    Yes.
    And who did your father buy the farm from?
    That I don't know.
    Probably from the German military
    or whoever had taken over those places.
    The difference was that I could remember
    that anyone that was connected to that farm
    was not supposed to be working there.
    Of course, my father was kind of a cheat in that respect
    as well, because one of the ladies,
    she was born and raised there on that farm,
    and her parents were in town.
    So my dad hired her to help my mother.
    Did he know that she had been from the farm?
    He did, and so did my mother.
    But he said he didn't care.
    He says he had enough of somebody telling him
    what to do on his place, and he was not going to do it twice.
    So in some ways, he wasn't being very obedient to the rules.
    That's right.
    And so there was this young woman whose farm it had been,
    or her family's, who was now working
    as a servant for your family.
    Yes.
    And as I could remember, my father
    paid her some money, which was not supposed to happen either.
    And he told her not to tell them, anybody, that he she got
    paid.
    And so then whenever she went to the village
    where her parents were, she would take that money
    and give it to them, to her parents.
    As far as her of working with my parents,
    she had no needs because she had as many clothes as she needed.
    She had enough to eat what she needed,
    and everything else in that respect, too.
    Do you think she resented that they were there?
    Not with us, no.
    But in a lot of places, that did not happen.
    So in one way, as a little kid, I
    was very proud of my dad, of what he did.
    Of course.
    That's when I started going to school over there.
    We'll come to school, but I want to cut the camera a little bit.
    OK.
    So we were talking about this Polish girl
    who worked for your parents, and that your father paid her
    some money, which he was not supposed to do.
    And she would give that money to her parents.
    Did your families ever meet?
    Did he ever get to see or get to know her parents?
    I don't know if my father did or not because he never said.
    But myself, no, I never met any of her family.
    What about your mom?
    You don't know?
    That I don't know either because they never talked about it.
    Well, what I am assuming must have happened
    is that this Polish family was thrown out of their farm
    as that happened across Poland.
    And then German evacuees from territories like Bessarabia,
    or from Latvia or from other places that were in the east
    and were being resettled, would be
    moved into either apartments-- either Jewish apartments
    or Polish apartments or farms or things like that,
    not knowing, not knowing.
    No.
    Yeah.
    So the fact that it was forbidden
    for somebody who had previously lived there to be associated
    with the new occupants or owners is a rule I didn't know about,
    and that your father and mother knew about it,
    and then decided to do what they do anyway,
    and that you realized it as a young boy.
    That's what I was talking about earlier when I asked
    what were your father's values.
    And this is one of the ways that his values are shown.
    This is what he valued.
    Yes.
    He valued the situation, what was going on
    on his farm, or supposedly his farm,
    nevertheless knowing that this farm was never his,
    but nevertheless he claimed it as such.
    Well, he paid for it.
    He paid for it.
    He paid for it.
    Not to the ones who were thrown out of it, but to somebody.
    Well, most likely I would say it all
    went to the politics of Germany, of what happened at that point.
    And that Germany had taken over Poland,
    that was nothing that we could even begin to think about
    or anything like that because even at that point,
    my father was not in the German army at that point.
    And he didn't get drafted into the German army until 1942.
    Well, you see there is another interesting thing,
    that by 1942, he's 31 years old.
    That's not the age of most of your draftees.
    That's older, significantly older.
    At tht point, I don't think Germany cared the age,
    as long as they could walk and shoot a gun,
    I think that was just about the only thing
    that they're concerned about.
    And like I said, my father was not
    a military man for anything.
    But when you get drafted into it, you don't have any choice.
    That's where he was, in the Third Army.
    Do you know if he was a very religious man, your father?
    About as religious as I could think of.
    He loved to go to church.
    He also knew how to read the Bible
    and tell us the basic facts.
    In our family, if you knew the Bible, you knew some about it,
    and you read the Bible and you could at least
    read, then that was a big plus.
    So that gives me aan easy segue way
    into what you said earlier about this
    is the place where you started school,
    when you were in this part of Poland
    and you had your second farm.
    This is where you started going to school.
    Yes.
    And is this where you started your formal education
    from, let's say, grade one?
    Yeah.
    What language?
    German.
    OK.
    Were there other children in the classroom
    who were also, like you, evacuees from someplace else?
    Quite a lot of them.
    Actually, I would say at least 99% of them.
    Well, that's pretty much everybody, isn't it?
    Just about, yes.
    So this would have been a school run--
    do you know where the farm was located, what part of Poland,
    what the name of the place was?
    No, I can't remember the place.
    I don't know any of the towns or any of those things, either.
    Only thing I know, it was on the northern end of Poland.
    Was the weather much different from where
    you had been born and spent your first years in your own home?
    Basically not.
    It was quite cold in the winter, lots of snow and stuff
    like that.
    And the summers were quite warm.
    And you know, when you're a young kid,
    you don't really care.
    No, you don't.
    Was the farmhouse much different than your own?
    No.
    Basically, it was an awful lot like the same
    as what we had before.
    It had a couple more rooms.
    But it was still the same.
    And then my dad had built another summer house.
    Another summer kitchen.
    And did your mother's parents live with you at that point,
    or were they around?
    She had lived with my dad's sisters.
    That's your grandma.
    My grandmother, yes.
    From your father's side.
    My father's side.
    What about your mother's parents?
    Were they close by?
    He bought his own farm.
    And he lived a few miles away from where we were,
    but he still stayed a blacksmith.
    He still stayed a blacksmith.
    Yes.
    So the school, were there any Polish children in the school?
    Not that I know of.
    Everybody that was there talked German.
    But then on the other hand, there
    were a lot of Polish children.
    They could also talk German.
    OK.
    So German was the language.
    That was the language in the school.
    But there weren't Polish children in your class.
    Not to my knowledge, no.
    Did you ever interact with any Polish children?
    Not too much because when we were done with school,
    we went home.
    And there again, my favorite place was my dog.
    You got another dog?
    Yes.
    OK.
    What kind of dog?
    He had the same name as the first one.
    What was that name?
    Dog.
    Dog.
    Or [NON-ENGLISH].
    [NON-ENGLISH].
    OK.
    But you know, one of the things that is different--
    there are many things that are different.
    But one of the things that is different
    is that in your home village, everybody around you,
    except for the Gypsies who come by, the Roma who come by,
    are the same.
    That is, they're Germans like you are.
    Yes.
    But when you get to Northern Poland,
    you're no longer in this environment
    where everybody else is from the same background.
    And I'm wondering what kind of exposure and interaction
    you had with people who were either Polish
    or from another part of Europe or Jewish,
    if you met anybody who was Jewish.
    They kind of segregated that to a certain extent.
    They wanted the Germans together in a group.
    And in that particular area, a lot of the people
    that bought farms and stuff over there,
    they were also German because they wouldn't
    let somebody else be in there.
    As far as the Polish people, I have no idea really
    what happened there.
    As far as the Jewish people, back in them days,
    they were not segregated as being Jewish,
    that that was any difficulty, until a little bit later on.
    Did you ever see any Jewish person?
    Yes, I did.
    While you were on that farm?
    Well, later on I had one of my best friends
    in school was Jewish.
    Really.
    But we had no no confrontations whatsoever.
    They were having their religion and we had ours.
    You mean when you were in Northern Poland
    and had settled into this farm, you
    had someone who was Jewish in your classroom?
    Yes.
    That's highly unusual.
    I have no idea how that happened, but I didn't care.
    He was my friend.
    Do you remember his name?
    No, I can't remember.
    Did he look different?
    Not that I could tell.
    He was the same.
    Like I said, to me, if he would have hurt his finger
    and I would have hurt mine, it still would have come out red.
    When I asked, he did he look different,
    is that some people who are Jewish
    had fair hair, fair eyes.
    They could pass as non-Jewish.
    No.
    You don't remember.
    I couldn't tell one from another.
    He did not look any different.
    But he said he was.
    Well, because he went to a different church.
    That's all.
    And whatever the Jewish people do,
    that had nothing to do with us whatsoever
    Well, as I say, I find that surprising
    because the history of Nazi policies in Poland
    was such that pretty soon after 1939, Jews
    were rounded up and put in ghettos, separated from--
    Well, as far as I know, that was a myth.
    Really?
    Because a lot of Germans that did not
    agree with what was going on at that point,
    whether they are Jewish or whether they were not,
    all of a sudden, they had a star on their shirt
    that they were Jews.
    And it didn't matter what religion
    they were because if they didn't agree with what was going on--
    Are you saying that there were people in your classrooms
    who had a star on their shirts, the yellow star?
    Later on, yes.
    Later on, yes.
    But probably, if it was 1941 that you were evacuated
    from Bessarabia, and then spent a number of months
    in this holding camp, and then your father buys
    the second farm, that means you start your schooling still
    in 1941, sometime around there.
    Sometime in that area, yes.
    And then you find that there are Jewish students with stars
    that they're wearing because that's
    the policy, they have to, in some of those classrooms.
    At first.
    At first.
    And then later on, I don't know what happened,
    but they all disappeared from what
    was going on at that point.
    So what was it that you say was the myth?
    That they were not all Jewish people,
    that they had this star or any of those things.
    That was a myth because they were not all Jewish people.
    Oh, no.
    No non-Jewish people had to wear a star.
    Only Jewish people had to wear the star.
    That was the idea.
    But politically, it didn't work out that way.
    I've got to say I'm a little confused by that.
    OK.
    Let's say if I would go and I would say, just
    to some of the authorities, I would just go and I would say,
    OK, you're Jewish.
    The next day, you were.
    Whether your religion was Jewish or not,
    that had nothing to do with it.
    Oh, I see.
    So if you want to go inform on someone,
    and say they're Jewish even if they may not be,
    that doesn't matter.
    They're already stigmatized as Jewish.
    Exactly.
    Now I understand.
    There's a lot of that went on that we knew that later on.
    But at first we had no idea of what
    was going on in the first place because we didn't even know why
    they were wearing them stars.
    So in other words, the implication
    is that amongst people who were German--
    whether they were from somewhere else
    or had come from Germany or whatever,
    but they're ethnically German--
    if they wanted to denounce someone,
    they could go to the authorities and say, so and so's Jewish.
    And the authorities didn't pay any attention.
    No.
    They picked them up.
    Yeah.
    I see what you mean.
    I see what you mean.
    I mean, it's not something that you
    would call that was a fair situation in the first place.
    But me personally, I didn't care whether the people were Jewish
    or whether they were not because to me,
    they were just people like the rest of us.
    I see what you're saying.
    I see what you're saying.
    Wow.
    You know, the kind of atmosphere that you're describing
    means that you keep your mouth shut.
    Exactly.
    You can't trust anybody.
    That's right.
    That's about what it amounted to.
    And that means for a small child--
    because you're still pretty young,
    you're in first or second grade--
    that's quite a lesson to learn.
    Well, I didn't have much lessons to learn
    because I was smart enough to know better
    even at a very, very young kid.
    And in them days, if you were really never a kid anymore.
    Well, tell me about that.
    Well, you had to be a grownup and think like a grownup
    rather than being a kid.
    Did you ever get to be a kid?
    Not tomy knowledge, except when I was very, very young
    because you had to learn very quickly that if you had
    a friend, you kept your mouth shut no matter
    what he was because he was your friend.
    And I don't know why that kind of stuff was going on,
    but it did.
    What were your subjects like?
    Did you have favorite subjects at school?
    Me personally, in school?
    I was a math whiz.
    Were you?
    Were you?
    So you liked math.
    I always loved that.
    Even when I come over here to United States,
    when I was with my wife, I could help her out with math.
    I would write it down different, like we
    did in Europe or in Germany.
    But the answer was still the same.
    Yeah, that's true.
    Well, I know that my daughter, for example,
    prefers math and prefers the sciences because there
    are precise answers, whereas in the humanities and literature,
    you can have one interpretation and you can
    have another interpretation.
    She wants to know the precise answer.
    That was my theory.
    So what were your teachers like in the school?
    Well, basically, my whole school, I only had two of them.
    Oh, really?
    One was a tall teacher, and he thought he knew it all.
    And we told him he didn't know anything, like a lot of kids.
    And what we picked on, because he was in the war,
    and they had shot half his ear off, so we told him
    his biggest smarts was in his ear that he lost.
    Well, that's kind of uppity.
    No, just being nasty.
    Yeah.
    Well, how did he respond to things like that?
    He took it in stride?
    He took it in stride because he couldn't bring his ear back.
    And this was in the school in Poland.
    Part of it, yes.
    And we had one that was quite short.
    And he thought he was the tallest guy in the country.
    And what he really liked was he likd to get a switch,
    and he would have you hold your hand out,
    and he would hit your hand with the switch, and right in here.
    Well, that's nice.
    Bad problem for him was also, I was kind of a nasty guy,
    and I put my hand over the inkwells.
    Remember we had the the inkwells,
    and then you had to dip your pen in it and write.
    And I held it over my hand, and then
    my whole hand here got all black and blue because it got hurt.
    So it looked worse.
    Looked a whole lot worse than it felt.
    And what happened then?
    I showed that to my dad, and he had him
    a nice talk with the teacher.
    Well, I remember this incident.
    And this is an incident you write
    about, you talk about, after the war, after everything's over,
    right?
    It's not in Poland.
    It's not from the time in Poland.
    But I had the same situation at that point, too.
    You mean you got switched on your hand in Poland?
    From one.
    I also had a lady teacher, and I liked her
    because I thought she was very smart in trying to teach
    the kids what they should know.
    And the other one, we had him very, very seldom.
    And that didn't last too terribly long.
    And then later on in Germany, we kind of
    had the same kind of situation.
    Well, what didn't last very long with the second person
    in Poland?
    He had to leave.
    Was he called up in the army?
    I have no idea.
    One day he just didn't show up any more as a teacher.
    As a teacher.
    I see.
    And then we only had the one lady teacher,
    and she was very nice.
    Did you ever have any lessons about Hitler,
    about German politics, about German ideas,
    the Nazi ideology?
    Not there, not in Poland.
    Not while you were going to school there.
    No.
    But we did, then, later on in Germany, yes.
    OK.
    We'll talk about that, then, later.
    And did you only have, then, the one lady
    teacher in your first years?
    Yes.
    All right.
    Let's go back to the farm that your father had bought.
    Was it as large as the farm in Bessarabia?
    No, it was not.
    But it was more than adequate for making a very good living.
    OK.
    And you say in 1942, he was then drafted.
    Yes.
    I'd say why don't we stop at this point,
    and we'll have a break for lunch and then continue later.
    OK.
    Thank you, because I think it's 1:15.
    OK.
    Before the break, we were talking
    about the early part of your childhood,
    from birth in Bessarabia to then being evacuated to Poland,
    and then your father buying the second farm.
    And we stopped at the point where your father
    gets drafted at the third time.
    Do you remember when he left the farm
    and when he had to go into the military?
    Yes, I can.
    Tell me about it.
    He was not very happy about that.
    But when you get drafted into the military,
    you go and do whatever you're told.
    Do you remember saying goodbye to him?
    Yes, we did.
    We had that much time.
    And they just come by, OK, let's go.
    And so then he had to go along with some other people that
    were drafted at the same time.
    And we hadn't seen him then for quite a while.
    Did you get any letters from him while he was serving?
    No, because there's two things.
    He didn't know where he was.
    And he wasn't sure that we would get any mail
    because it was in Poland.
    And he had no idea when or how long it
    would take to get a letter.
    He did come home eventually, didn't he?
    He had a furlough.
    The thing was, when he was home, he
    had to keep his military clothes on all the time.
    Really?
    They wouldn't let him--
    he was not allowed to take his clothes off.
    So he couldn't go out farming.
    No, he wasn't home long enough to do this.
    But the most that he spent was probably,
    I would say, at the very longest, about a week.
    On a furlough.
    On a furlough.
    He had to keep his gun on him at all times and his uniform.
    Did he say anything about where he was serving
    and what he was doing?
    No, not at that time.
    I found out later on where he was,
    but that was already after the war.
    So let's talk about that.
    So for that first deployment, where was he?
    What you found out after the war,
    what did he tell you about that first place?
    He didn't really comment on where he was at the time.
    But he did say he was in Normandy.
    And that's where he got wounded, there.
    Was he there during D-Day?
    Yes.
    And he said he was on the southern part of Germany.
    And so then he was ordered to go over there
    before the ships and all that stuff come over there.
    So he was there during that nasty situation
    what was going on at that time.
    Well, that's D-Day.
    That's the invasion.
    So he was not on the beach, but in the bunker
    at the top of the cliffs.
    He was on top of the cliffs, yes.
    And he was pretty close to be out of ammunition or anything
    else by the time that that portion was over with.
    And then they ordered him to go.
    To retreat.
    Go somewhere else, yes.
    Did he get wounded in Normandy?
    Yes, he did.
    And so then he was evacuated from there.
    Not particularly.
    No?
    No.
    He had the shrapnel in his hip, and he got shot
    in the bottom of his foot.
    And so he kind of hobbled around there for a while
    until they ordered him to go somewhere else.
    To still fight?
    Yes.
    But he's wounded.
    They didn't care.
    There were a lot of people who were wounded then at that time.
    Well, by that point it's 1944.
    That's June 6, 1944.
    But the first time he's taken is in 1942, you said.
    And he comes back home, and he has
    a furlough for about a week.
    He has to keep his uniform on, gun by his side.
    And then he leaves again.
    Yes.
    But at that point he had no idea where he was going,
    and we had no idea where he was at, either.
    That must have been very worrisome for everybody.
    It was.
    What were the sort of things that
    would go through your mind?
    I hope we'll see him again.
    It was not the type of thing that you were really
    thinking about.
    Even at that time, you kind of had
    to think more about am I going to be around?
    And when you have a lot of gunfire and you hear 24/7,
    it's not much fun.
    No.
    But you know, up until this point in your story,
    although it sounds very disruptive
    and like your fate is taken out of your own hands,
    I haven't heard of any violence or danger.
    You go to a school, the school is in German, almost 99%
    of the classmates are like you who
    have come from somewhere else.
    The war seems far away, even though the authorities
    don't sound like they're anybody to be messed with.
    When do things change?
    What happens?
    We were pretty much protected from the soldiers,
    or with the soldiers because all of those guys,
    they all needed to eat.
    And you're a farmer.
    I don't know any politicians or any of those kind of people,
    they all want to eat.
    And of course, in them days, the soldiers needed to be fed.
    So were you feeding them?
    Were they coming to your home?
    No.
    But we had the stuff that they would eat,
    and they took it, I have no idea where, to get it processed.
    So if you were growing wheat, they
    would take the wheat for it to be milled into flour.
    Yes.
    Would they requisition things from your farm?
    Not at that time.
    There was just a matter of taking that to a broker,
    or whatever they call it, to take this stuff somewhere else
    to be processed.
    How did your mother manage?
    She is a tough lady.
    Yes, I guess.
    But I mean, everything was left in her hands.
    Yes, it was.
    Did her parents come to help?
    No, they had a place of their own to take care of.
    Their own.
    So did she have hired help, aside from that Polish girl?
    Yes.
    She had a couple of guys.
    And were the guys Germans, or were they Poles?
    They were Germans.
    They were Germans.
    So the Polish girl was the only Pole that you had there.
    Yes.
    Did she speak any German?
    Yes, she did.
    Do you remember her name?
    No, I don't.
    OK.
    What about your grandma from your father's side?
    She was still living with one of his siblings?
    Yes.
    She was staying with her daughter.
    OK.
    And you continued to go to school.
    I did.
    Did your father come back on more furloughs?
    No.
    So there was just the one time.
    One time only.
    He came back and then he's gone, and then
    he's gone for a very long time.
    Till 1945.
    Till 1945.
    Or actually, '46, because after the war ended, he was in a camp
    to where they had the German people go and work for farmers
    and whatever till 1946.
    When he was in a camp, was he in a prisoner of war camp, then,
    after the war?
    Yes.
    Who was running it?
    I believe it was English soldiers.
    It was the British, then.
    Yes.
    So British POW camp.
    So he never made it home after he was wounded in Normandy?
    No.
    We found out about that after the war.
    Well, then, let's go back to Poland,
    where you are with your mother and your little brother
    and little sister.
    When do things start to become different for you?
    What are the things that are changing as time goes on?
    Basically, there wasn't a whole lot of changes
    until about winter of 1944 and '45,
    and then we had to leave Poland.
    How?
    Who told you to leave?
    Again, the SS guys.
    They said you're either going to get run over
    by the Russian soldiers, or you can leave and go to Germany
    from there.
    So again, it was another evacuation.
    Yes, it was.
    And then now at this point, your mother is without your father.
    How did you leave?
    What did you leave with?
    We were allowed to take a wagon.
    And it was similar to the wagon trains that
    went west from back east here.
    In the United States.
    Yes.
    They were similar.
    Were they covered wagons or were they open?
    Well, ours was covered, but a lot of them were not.
    But that was your individual situation,
    whatever you wanted to do.
    Do you remember what your mother took, what was taken, that is,
    what you took with you?
    Of course.
    So what was that?
    We had a pig and a pig steer in the wagon.
    They were butchered so we had something to eat.
    That was important.
    And it could have also been something
    other people, hungry on the road, would have wanted.
    Well, they didn't know what we had.
    And we were not going to broadcast this situation,
    either.
    And this was in wintertime, yes?
    Yes.
    So in other words, it was cold enough
    that the meat would not spoil.
    It was very cold.
    Do you remember the month that you left your second farm?
    No, I can't.
    All I know was we had a lot of snow, and we had two horses.
    And then one of them, the hoof kind of got
    hurt because of the ice and what not.
    And so then we only had one horse and a wagon.
    When you were on the road, describe to me
    what you saw on the road going westwards.
    There's quite a few things happened.
    There were also a lot of people who were marching east.
    Why?
    Because they were herded that way by the soldiers.
    Who were these people?
    I don't really know.
    A lot of them were Polish.
    A lot of them were concentration camps.
    Oh, so they could have been Jews who had
    been in concentration camps.
    Yes.
    What did they look like?
    Same as anyone else.
    Were they dressed the same as everybody else?
    No.
    How were they dressed?
    Basically, they were walking without shoes.
    They were barefoot.
    Well, a lot of them had socks on.
    But that's about all, even though it
    was cold and icy and snow.
    Did they looked different than everybody else?
    Very hungry.
    But I think you probably read in the book that one of the ladies
    put her head under the wagon, our wagon,
    and when my mother make the horses go--
    Over her head?
    To kill her.
    Oh my goodness.
    And of course, my mother wouldn't do this
    because if she would have, she probably would have got shot.
    And there was probably 10 or 12-year-old kid,
    he got tired of all this, and he ran across the field.
    And they did shoot him.
    So in other words, you have concentration camp survivors--
    most likely concentration camp survivors--
    who are walking in the opposite direction.
    From the way we were going.
    And there are still soldiers that are guarding them.
    Yes.
    They were mostly soldiers, regular soldiers.
    And then every once in a while, there was an SS guy.
    And the soldiers had to do what they had to do.
    And what was that that they had to do?
    Just herd them people east.
    But you saw the boy get shot?
    Yes.
    Was that the first time you saw someone get shot?
    No.
    Tell me about the first time you saw someone get shot.
    Well, basically it was one of our neighbors.
    And it wasn't a boy, it was a man.
    So this was when you were at the farm in Poland?
    Yes.
    So what happened?
    We were not allowed to have any guns.
    And this man's son was kind of bragging
    that my dad has a gun, which was a big mistake in them
    days because no one was allowed any guns except certain Gestapo
    guys, and that was about all.
    Course, we didn't have any guns either
    because before we left Bessarabia,
    my dad found out that's what was going to happen,
    that all the guns were going to be--
    you had to turn them in.
    My dad had an or arsenal of guns and ammunition and everything.
    He probably could have started his own war.
    So what we did, between him and me,
    we went and we had one of the steers and whatnot.
    And he took the hide off and put it
    full of axle grease and stuff like that
    and wrapped guns into it, and we buried them.
    In Bessarabia.
    Yes.
    And even right now, if I'd go over there,
    and I know where the well is, I know where the guns were.
    In one way, it was kind of comical
    because I was a little kid and I knew what was going on.
    Well, then you were really little.
    I was very little.
    So because this neighbor had a gun, what happened to him?
    Or how is it that he ends up being shot?
    My dad was on furlough right about the same time.
    And the two neighbors, they were talking to each other.
    The farmer, that other farmer, was
    not because he had a bad leg, so they wouldn't take him
    into the army.
    and And two SS guys drove up to the yard.
    And one of them demanded that he would give him the gun,
    and he told them he didn't have one.
    And so he decided he was going to take my dad's gun.
    He took all the ammunition out except one bullet,
    and he went and shot our neighbor.
    With your dad's gun?
    In front of his kid and his wife.
    And all he said was, I guess you don't need a gun no more.
    Then they got into their motorcycle stuff and took off.
    Oh my goodness.
    And I said, you know, if that's the kind of stuff
    that they want, I don't want any part of it.
    But you live there and you still do as you're told.
    You know, you're bringing up something
    that was one of the questions in my mind,
    is it doesn't sound like you lost much love
    for these authorities.
    I did not.
    But like I said, you still got to do what you gotta do.
    Did you, in later years, or even at that time--
    see, I keep remembering you're just a kid,
    and what can you expect from a kid to be able to process?
    These are your own people.
    These are Germans, supposedly, these authorities.
    Supposedly.
    Yeah.
    And you have this sort of reserve, distrust, recognition
    of their power.
    And at the same time, people who are not German see you,
    and how did they think of you?
    And do you feel like you were caught in between?
    Did you feel like you were caught, basically?
    Well, come to think of it, at this time,
    I would say we were--
    well, a lot of places, they would
    say we were between a rock and a hard place,
    or we were in the middle of good and evil.
    A lot of the German soldiers, they
    didn't want that war at all.
    But the upper people, they decided
    that's what they wanted, to make more money.
    That's the way I felt.
    And of course, we would never get in here that kind of thing,
    just like you have in every country.
    You have people that got the authority,
    you have people that follow their orders.
    Whether it's right or wrong, it doesn't matter.
    And I just-- me personally, even in them days,
    I detested the upper crust, so to speak,
    of people that threw their dirty authority around,
    and other people had to go and take it.
    And I guess that kind of stuff happens worldwide.
    And I would think that nobody would ever
    change that portion of it.
    You mean it's human nature?
    I would think it is, because that's why you have
    good people and bad people.
    But it's also, to see that violence, first of all,
    so unexpected against your neighbor.
    And the bitter part--
    there are many bitter parts--
    but taking your father's gun that he has,
    that he's supposed to use in fighting an enemy,
    and emptying it of bullets, and using
    that ostensibly neighbor's gun to shoot someone,
    to kill someone, there's something twisted in that.
    That's kind of the way I felt as a kid.
    I figured the guy that used my dad's gun,
    he didn't have brains enough to use his own gun,
    and he had to use my dad's to do it.
    And maybe he was pretty well-satisfied
    with the situation.
    Nevertheless, it was still wrong.
    Of course.
    And you didn't see this.
    You heard about it from your father, or you saw it as well?
    I saw it when he did it because we were over at their place.
    So you saw a person being murdered.
    Yes.
    That was not altogether uncommon.
    But it's early on, and you are six or seven years old.
    Yes.
    And was the next time that you saw
    someone killed when you were on that road fleeing and going
    westwards?
    Yes.
    And that's when you saw the lady put
    her head underneath the wheel and ask your mother
    to run over it?
    Yes.
    As you continued to go westward, what other things did you see?
    Well, we've had to cross a river, which
    they bombed the bridge.
    And we had to cross that on ice.
    And the ice could break.
    And there's ice across the river.
    I can't remember the name of the river.
    I think in the book it's the [NON-ENGLISH]..
    It's the [NON-ENGLISH] River.
    Or the [NON-ENGLISH].
    The [NON-ENGLISH].
    All I know, it was a river between Poland and Germany.
    Then it's [NON-ENGLISH].
    Frankfort [NON-ENGLISH] and Frankfort [NON-ENGLISH]..
    And I think it was the [NON-ENGLISH] River.
    It's between Germany and Poland.
    I can't remember exactly what it was.
    And probably at that time, I didn't care.
    Of course not.
    So this was with your wagon?
    Yes.
    And how were you sure that the ice wouldn't break
    and the wagon wouldn't sink?
    Every day during the day, they would put water on the river,
    and then it would freeze.
    And there was one wagon that I seen what part of it
    was what broke down into the ice.
    And there is only one trail that you could go.
    And I told my mother that I was going to drive the wagon.
    But the soldiers wouldn't let me do this.
    They said my mother had to drive it instead of me.
    So what happened?
    We walked across, and she drove across.
    So she's the one who drove it across.
    Yes.
    She didn't have a choice.
    Show had to.
    Your mother had to deal with so much.
    Three little kids, the wagon.
    Well, I always told them I was the man
    of the house, which I was.
    I was the only man in the house.
    But my mother and myself, we'd work together as a team.
    She needed you.
    Yes, she did.
    Yeah.
    Your grandparents, your mother's parents, were they with you,
    or had they left separately, or were they still behind?
    We run across them shortly after we had crossed the river.
    And then they had two horses and we had one.
    And so we tied the two wagons together.
    And then we had three horses.
    And then we went a very short distance.
    Then he lost a horse, so we had two wagons and two horses.
    Where did you sleep?
    They always found some old barn or something
    where most people slept.
    Me, I slept out in the wagon.
    Did you?
    OK.
    And did you continue seeing these concentration
    camp survivors on the road?
    Part of was--
    I'm not quite sure.
    I think it probably wasn't Poland.
    Maybe it was in Germany.
    I'm not sure about that.
    But we've seen some black smoke, probably a kilometer,
    which was probably a mile or less, real black smoke.
    And we were told the Germans were burning tires.
    And we found out later on that was Auschwitz.
    Really?
    Oh my goodness.
    Oh my goodness.
    Could you smell it?
    Well, we figured it was tires.
    They smell.
    So you know, that's kind of what it was for quite a while.
    And then later on, we found out it was not the same.
    And as far as getting lied to all the time,
    that was a normal situation.
    Did your mother ever say anything about the authorities?
    No.
    Never.
    We never discussed it in any way because she
    said if we say something and it's wrong,
    then we could get shot.
    Said it was never discussed in any way.
    Can we cut?
    In the book that your wife Carol wrote down
    some of your memories, there is a part
    where, as you keep going westwards,
    you come across the snow being more and more drenched
    with blood.
    Do you remember this incident or these sites?
    I couldn't quite understand what you were saying.
    That the snow-- you know, you talked about the one boy
    that you saw shot.
    Yes.
    And elsewhere in that book, you also
    mentioned that you see splotches of red
    from people being shot on the way.
    Yes.
    Or they were bleeding about something.
    I don't know.
    Maybe they got beat up or something like that because I'm
    not sure about what it was.
    We do know it was blood.
    Did you ever see a greater concentration in the snow,
    of the snow being more red than white?
    Not really.
    It was kind of rare where you've seen some of those
    because even while we were going there, it was still snowing.
    And so maybe a lot of it got covered, that we had no idea.
    Was the roads full of people, that is,
    with wagons and some of these survivors?
    Or was it times where it was emptied out?
    Except at night, I never seen it empty for quite a long while.
    So there were probably several thousand people
    that were going in the wrong direction.
    And were there always soldiers on the roads?
    Yes, always.
    When you crossed the river into Germany, did things change?
    Did you still have those camp inmates on the road,
    or did they stop?
    No.
    They kind of disappeared, then, after a while.
    But the thing was, a lot of people
    said go on the south side of Berlin.
    And a couple soldiers told her, don't go on the south side.
    Go on the north side.
    So we did.
    We went on north side of Berlin.
    And we didn't run into a lot of problems
    that we heard later on that a lot
    the guys run across that were on the other side.
    What were some of the problems that they had that they
    experienced on the south side?
    They had a lot more military activity
    than we did on our side.
    But listening to guns 24/7 all the time,
    all day long, all night long, it got to be quite--
    I don't know-- quite disgusting.
    Yeah.
    So that's the noise that accompanied you
    from the time you left the farm in Poland on your way
    through Germany?
    You kept hearing the guns, the cannons, and so on.
    So you knew the fighting was close by.
    Yes.
    Is there any place that you stopped for any length of time?
    We stopped at a place, and I cannot remember the town where
    we actually stopped.
    And so there was a lady.
    And she didn't have a farm, but she had some animals and stuff
    by her house.
    And the tragic situation then was the soldiers,
    they were on a tank.
    Were these German soldiers?
    They were English soldiers.
    So you were already in an area of Germany
    that was being controlled by the British.
    Yes.
    OK.
    So you're in Western part of Germany by this point.
    Yes.
    And then what happened is there was a mill, a flour mill.
    And the building was relatively tall.
    And that's where the soldiers were during the day.
    At night they left.
    I don't know where they went.
    But anyway--
    These are the British soldiers.
    They were British soldiers.
    And anyway, during the night, some of the German soldiers
    come over there, and they burned that mill.
    So there was still fighting going on.
    Yes, there was.
    And then they situated a tank in between two buildings
    that they could shoot into another town.
    The big part was, then, is when that mill was burnt.
    It was on a Sunday morning.
    We had breakfast.
    And they took a flamethrower and shot into our house.
    The British.
    Where we lived, yes.
    And whether they were ordered to do that or whether they were
    just ignorant and done it on their own,
    flamethrower went between us kids and my grandmother
    and grandfather and started the whole house on fire instantly.
    Oh my goodness.
    My mother and my grandpa, they went out
    and they pushed our wagon out over to the neighbors,
    and the horses, except they couldn't come back and get
    the rest of the horses and stuff, which they
    died right there in the fire.
    The animals.
    The animals.
    What about the people?
    Did the people make it out?
    There is only one lady.
    Oh, that was her house?
    That was her house.
    And then my grandfather helped her
    and grandma, my grandmother, and said go across the street.
    There was an empty lot, and so we went over there.
    And then when my mother and my grandfather
    went and taken care of all they could on that house,
    then they come over there as well.
    The bad situation, from the way I seen it at that time,
    was that them soldiers thought that was the biggest
    thing they ever could do.
    They were laughing, slapping each other in the back,
    and whatever.
    To me, it was a stupid joke.
    It's cruel.
    It was very cruel.
    And then we done something after that.
    A friend of mine and myself, there
    was a little creek right on the backside of that house.
    And we went over there and we started a very small fire.
    And we took some machine gun ammunition,
    and we set it on there.
    So it started spluttering and exploding.
    Exactly.
    And that was the idea.
    So then we run all we could, got around and got back over there
    where the soldiers were.
    And all of a sudden all this explosion was going on.
    They had no idea what the heck was going on.
    So then we had our fun.
    But in your fun, no animals died.
    No.
    And nobody's house got burned down.
    Nobody got hurt in any fashion.
    But it sure got them shook up a little.
    Well, what did you all do?
    Now you had no roof over your head again.
    Where did you go?
    A neighbor just down the road, he had a butcher shop.
    But he hadn't used it for quite some time.
    So we lived in that butcher shop.
    Do you know the name of this place?
    No.
    I have no idea what it was.
    That was the same time my best friend got killed
    standing right next to me.
    What happened?
    Airplane.
    You were playing?
    An airplane.
    An airplane.
    An airplane went and shot him.
    And from what I know about airplanes,
    you do know whether it's a child or whether it's a grown person.
    You know, you're saying.
    You know, because he was very down low to the ground
    when it happened.
    Three days later, the same thing happened
    except we were down there by the creek at that time,
    and we could follow this bullet.
    And because it was bouncing, kind of.
    But 1/8 of a mile or less, there was a road.
    That bullet hit the back of the horses,
    killed both of the horses and the man that was in there,
    and kind of cut the woman's throat.
    Fortunately we run over there.
    And or maybe I was tougher than two of my friends,
    and I told them to hurry up and run, get a doctor.
    And so I kind of held that woman's neck.
    So blood must have been coming out all over the place.
    It was.
    But I was holding it very tightly
    and got to where we could stop it a little.
    And the doctor came over there.
    Then he took over and we left.
    Almost a year later, this very lady
    come looking for us and the doctor,
    and she thanked us for saving her life.
    But it's one of those things, you know?
    You have to do what you have to do.
    Yeah, but you're 10 years old.
    That's right.
    Or nine years old.
    So we were kind of figured that doctor would handle things,
    and so we left.
    And then she came over and thanked us very
    profusely for what happened.
    And I think the one that told her about us boys
    was the doctor because she found the doctor first.
    But what a brave thing for a child to save a grownup.
    Well, like I said, sometimes you gotta
    do what you gotta do, no matter what age
    or whatever else happens.
    And not long after that, my mother
    went and went with Red Cross to find my dad.
    This was after the war.
    When it's over now, yeah.
    So then we didn't really expect much.
    My dad did the same thing.
    He infarmed the Red Cross as well to find us.
    Where was your dad, by the way?
    He was in kind of a concentration camp,
    but they would let him go out and work for farmers.
    So it was a prisoner of war camp.
    Yeah.
    Yeah, OK.
    And I believe it was English soldiers that
    were guarding them.
    But they could go out and work, which was OK.
    A man come along the road, and he asked about his family.
    And I said that village on the other side--
    the one that I said where they could him over there
    and shoot over there--
    that very same village over there,
    I told him I thought there was a couple of kids over there
    with that name, his name.
    And so I asked him, I says, if you come out of that camp,
    is there anybody by the name of Koppenstein over there?
    He says, yeah, there is a guy over there.
    He claims that's what his name is.
    So my grandfather and my mother went over there.
    They said, well, he's working.
    If you want to wait a little while,
    you'll probably see him, that same guy.
    But they had no idea who he was.
    And with all the luck, it was my father.
    How amazing.
    And they said, well, with all the paperwork we gotta do,
    he can leave in three days.
    So they released him.
    Yes.
    And did you go there to meet him,
    or did you first see him when he came back to your village?
    My mother and my grandfather went over there, and we waited.
    What did he look like?
    It's been years since you had seen him.
    He looked like my father.
    And basically that's all I cared.
    That's basically how we got together again.
    And then after that, we moved.
    Where did you move to?
    Well, we moved further into Germany.
    And do you remember any of the places
    that you lived in that you moved to?
    Well, that was the last place that we lived before we
    come over to the United States.
    And what was the name of that place?
    Was it Northern Germany, or in Southern Germany?
    It was kind of Southern.
    One of the major towns are over there was Hanover.
    Oh, OK.
    I know where that is, yeah.
    It's sort of in the middle.
    And so we settled over there for a few years, until 1952.
    And how did you support yourselves?
    Did you go to school?
    Did your father work?
    I went to school again.
    And there was more than a year we didn't
    have any school because--
    There was a war.
    Because of the war.
    And so anyway, so I decided I need to get eighth grade out
    of the road and get that done.
    And so I took two years of school in one year.
    And what they called homework in them days, that was just it,
    home work.
    And you did not do the homework in school.
    You did it at home.
    And is that where you had those teachers,
    the one with the switch and the one with the ear?
    Yes.
    But that was the second time with the switch.
    But that was OK.
    I didn't care.
    Well, you'd been through worse.
    The bad thing about a lot of those things
    is that you never know where your relatives are
    during that time.
    And it really doesn't really matter much which end of it
    or what part of it.
    It all seemed to be in the same kind of situations.
    There's a lot that you went-- by the age of 10,
    you would see seen an awful lot and had come this close
    to death.
    Very close.
    Very close.
    And the whole thing is still you never
    did know one day from another if you're
    going to get up in the morning and you're still breathing.
    And you know, it's just--
    Were you afraid all that time?
    Well, to a certain extent, yes.
    To another, I guess it happens to me.
    It happened to a lot of other people as well.
    And so I just never really worried too much about it
    myself.
    How did you come to the United States?
    What was the means of being able to get here?
    We had different places that we could go.
    Through what organization?
    Lutheran church.
    Through the Lutheran church.
    But we could have either went to Canada,
    which we had relatives there.
    We could have went to Brazil.
    We had my grandmother's brother lived there.
    Or we could come over here.
    So my dad decided we were going to come over here.
    And why would you leave Germany?
    Why leave?
    You were finally, actually within Germany proper.
    My father was afraid that if there
    was anything going to come of it again,
    they're going to start it again over there, the same place.
    So he wasn't secure.
    He didn't feel secure at all.
    And the thing was that he had work,
    but it was a government situation,
    and we got a certain amount of food stamps, not money, stamps.
    And you had to have a certain amount of stamps
    to buy a pair of shoes.
    So things were still rationed.
    It was very rationed.
    And if you want to buy a pound of butter
    over there, if you had money and you actually
    wanted to pay for it, it would have cost you 5,000 mark
    to get one pound of butter.
    And so then after a while, the money changed.
    And so there wasn't any money per se.
    Did you feel at home in Germany?
    I was at home wherever I went because I
    had friends over there.
    And I had other stuff, and stuff that I'd done on my own
    without.
    And I went to the all the farms in the fall of the year,
    and I asked them, there's a wheat field.
    They couldn't get all the corners and stuff like that.
    So I went over there and I picked heads off of that,
    and then we took it out in the yard,
    and we kind of trashed it with sticks and whatnot
    to get the wheat out of the hull.
    And then we went to the mill and traded it
    so we would have flour.
    For baking.
    We also had sheep, a few.
    And we had wool.
    My mother was very good in knitting stuff with sheep wool.
    Did you feel like you were accepted by the local Germans?
    No.
    We were always outcasts.
    And we were not wanted because even there, where we lived,
    we lived with a farmer couple over there.
    And we had one room that was assigned where they
    couldn't even do anything with.
    It was assigned that way from the immediate government.
    We had one room, and we had the house.
    There was a hallway and the cows.
    So you were in the barn.
    Basically, yes.
    And then later on, that farmer, he decided, well, you know,
    I'm going to get along with these people very well.
    And so I got another small place over there.
    And I'm going to take the feed out of there,
    and that's where they had the feed for the horses.
    So that was your room?
    And then my parents decided, well, my brother and myself,
    we could be in that room.
    But there were five of us in one room first by the cows.
    And we got along with that farmer very well.
    Did people look at you as not really
    being German, or not really belonging?
    We never belonged because--
    well, we were kind of outcasts.
    We moved there and took over their area.
    And so we also worked for that farmer
    somewhat, what they called a peat pit.
    It was off a little ways from the house.
    And we helped him go and get some peat,
    if you know what that is.
    I have to say I've heard of it.
    But if you were asking me to point it out,
    I wouldn't be able to.
    OK.
    The peat that they had, it's in area
    that used to be timber and stuff like that.
    And it all kind of fell together.
    So it rots.
    Water.
    And so then if you took the top off, that was very mild,
    and you could use it in the summertime to cook
    and that kind of stuff.
    They also had no electricity there much either.
    It was common, but not right then.
    So you burned that in the stove.
    The lower part of it was like coal.
    And so we had to go out there, and we'd have to dig this.
    And the horse that we used, we put shoes on them
    to make the feet larger so they wouldn't sink.
    And so we kind of had fun doing that and helping the farmer out
    with that.
    So your father decides he doesn't want to stay.
    He wants to have a new beginning, I guess.
    That's right.
    And you were able to come-- did you have
    relatives in the United States?
    Yes.
    And through the Lutheran church, you
    were able, then, to secure visas to come here?
    The church sponsored us to go from Germany to Ellis Island.
    And then from Ellis Island?
    Ellis Island is in New York.
    Been there.
    And from Ellis Island, did they sponsor you?
    From Ellis Island, there was a farmer
    sponsored us to go from there to eastern Montana.
    That's a hike.
    Well, we got on a train and went over there.
    But the thing was, the deal was that my father would work
    for that farmer for one year.
    And then we kind of cheated on that a little bit
    because I worked there, too.
    Well, the farmer got two for one.
    That's right.
    But we both got paid a little, you know, whatever there was.
    And then I started work.
    Then I got work on a railroad, and I got all kinds of money.
    I got $0.53 an hour.
    But this isn't money with inflation,
    where you have to pay 5,000 for a pound of butter.
    This is different kind of money.
    Different kind of money.
    We could spend it.
    But I took all my money, except for probably $5.00,
    and I used that for a smoke break.
    A what?
    A smoke break.
    A smoke brick?
    Of course.
    You know, when you smoke?
    So it went on cigarettes?
    Of course.
    I had to do something.
    You have to find something to invest your money in.
    Of course.
    Exactly.
    The rest of money, I give that to my parents.
    Well, you know, we're coming we're
    coming close to the end of our interview,
    and I've got a few final kinds of questions.
    You know, you experienced this war during the most tender
    years that a child can have, from before age 10.
    You've seen it all.
    Yes.
    How did it change you?
    How did it shape you?
    How did these experiences change you?
    What did it make of you?
    My feeling was-- and this is very personal--
    in my life, I had very, very few years where
    I could say that I was a child.
    In one way, I never regretted that because I learned a lot
    of things about good and evil.
    And that is the thing that kind of installed in my life.
    And as far as anything else goes, to me,
    it's something that happened years ago,
    and I don't want any part of it.
    I never wanted to talk about it.
    And I simply never regretted any minute of it because--
    Excuse me.
    Continue.
    Because I just felt like to me, that it was just about
    like reading a history book.
    Does that mean you never talked about the war years
    to anybody when you came over here?
    No, never did.
    When did you start?
    My grandson started it.
    So in other words, your wife didn't know.
    Your children didn't know.
    No.
    It was only through a grandson.
    Yes.
    He had to write an essay in school.
    And I think he did very well, from what I taught him.
    Whether the school teachers believed him or not,
    I don't know.
    But at least he asked the questions.
    So he was the first one who asked the questions?
    The first one.
    And how long ago was this?
    10 years, 15 years?
    I think maybe my wife would know a little bit more
    when she started writing the book.
    Hang on a minute.
    Let's cut the camera.
    OK.
    So we just asked your wife, and she
    thinks it must have been around 2005, maybe a year or two
    before.
    But something around that time.
    Somewhere in that area.
    So it would have been 60 years, a good 60 years
    that you never talked about it?
    No.
    Not to no one.
    Not to anyone.
    I figured it was my history and I
    was going to keep it that way.
    Was it too hard to talk about?
    No.
    It was just, I couldn't remember things in sequence.
    But and my wife went ahead and put it
    more in a more perspective manner
    because I couldn't remember everything in sequence,
    and I didn't want to.
    And so Carol had no idea, basically,
    of what I went through or what the situation
    was or any of those things.
    And I got to know her in 1952.
    I was hauling hay off of her father's place to the guy
    that I was working for.
    And she had no idea who I was, just some guy that hauled hay.
    And then she didn't know about me.
    But her grandmother knew who I was because her grandmother
    and myself, basically we were born in Bessarabia.
    So her grandmother was from the same part of the world.
    Yes.
    But she didn't know that, and she had no idea
    that I was going to go after her because I
    told my brother in 1952 that I was going to marry her.
    And he told me that I was nuts.
    Well, you did, didn't you?
    I did.
    And that was only 50 some years ago.
    Is there anything else you would like to add to our interview
    today?
    Anything that you think we've missed
    that is necessary to highlight?
    I wouldn't know.
    All I know is I probably talk too much
    and didn't let you enough time to ask questions.
    You did wonderfully.
    You did wonderfully.
    And I can't tell you how grateful we
    are that you agreed to share.
    I'm the one that has to be grateful that you took the time
    to even talk to me.
    Oh, come on.
    Thank you for sharing this.
    Well, you're very welcome.
    And I'll say, then, that with this, this
    concludes the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
    interview with Mr. Christian Koppenstein on March 24,
    2018, in Overgaard, Arizona.
    Thank you again.
    And I am very grateful that you did.
    Thank you.
    And that's all I can say about it.
    It's mutual.
    It's mutual.
    Thank you again.
    No problem I was going to show you some pictures.

    Overview

    Interview Summary
    Christian (Chris) Koppenstein, born on October 20, 1936 in Bessarabia (now Moldova), discusses growing up in a German village called Fundu Sarasika; his family’s farm; growing up Lutheran; his father’s involvement in three different armies (Russian, Romanian, and German armies), though he preferred his farm; being forced to leave Bessarabia; being transported in 1941 by trucks to a quarantined area in Poland, where they remained for approximately three months; the birth of his baby sister in 1941; his father purchasing another farm in northern Poland; a young Polish woman working on their farm and his parents paying her for her work even though it was illegal; his father being called into the German Army; his father’s brief return; attending school with other ethnic Germans who had been displaced from elsewhere; witnessing an SS officer kill one of their neighbors; how there was one Jewish student in his class; his father being sent away again; fleeing westward and seeing what he believes were death marches heading eastward; joining his maternal grandparents; going to western Germany and then a town under British control; seeing British soldiers mistreat the locals; the end of the war; his father being in a prisoner-of-war camp five miles from the town where they were living; never feeling at home in Germany and feeling resentment from Poles in Poland; being sponsored by a Lutheran organization to go to the United States in 1952; and settling in the American West, where there were a lot of people from Bessarabia.
    Interviewee
    Christian Koppenstein
    Interviewer
    Navazelskis, Ina
    Date
    interview:  2018 March 24
    Geography
    creation: Overgaard (Ariz.)
    Credit Line
    United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Collection

    Physical Details

    Language
    English
    Extent
    1 digital file : MPEG-4.

    Rights & Restrictions

    Conditions on Access
    There are no known restrictions on access to this material.
    Conditions on Use
    No restrictions on use

    Keywords & Subjects

    Personal Name
    Koppenstein, Christian.

    Administrative Notes

    Legal Status
    Permanent Collection
    Provenance
    Ina Navazelskis, on behalf of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Oral History Branch, conducted the oral history interview with Christian Koppenstein on March 24, 2018 in Overgaard, AZ.
    Funding Note
    The cataloging of this oral history interview has been supported by a grant from the Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany.
    Record last modified:
    2023-11-16 08:05:47
    This page:
    https:​/​/collections.ushmm.org​/search​/catalog​/irn597035

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    Oral history interview with Ernst Weihs

    Oral History

    Ernst Weihs, born in 1908 in Vienna, Austria and describes his family; his father’s participation in World War I and returning to ask for a divorce from his mother; moving out to the country with his mother and having a difficult life; getting baptized and attending church at the age of 11; finding a job as a gardener to support himself; returning to Vienna in 1928 and living near his father and stepmother; being declared Jewish, having to wear the star, and quitting his gardening job; working for a summer with a Jewish Agency to train for living in Palestine; living in a Swedish mission house associated with the Lutheran church and managing its gardens; working with a Guildemester organization that brought food to people until 1942 when the Germans closed it; being deported to a ghetto in Theresienstadt, Czechoslovakia and then to Auschwitz; his transfer to the Kaufering labor camp, where he worked farming nearby fields; remaining in Kaufering until the spring of 1945, when he had to evacuate toward Dachau; being liberated during the march to Dachau by American troops; getting married and having a baby after the war; and immigrating to the United States and raising his daughter as a Lutheran.

    Oral history interview with Agnes Vogel

    Oral history interview with Agnes Vogel

    Oral History

    Agnes Vogel, born on January 1, 1924 in Debrecen, Hungary, describes her childhood; attending a special school in a Catholic Convent in 1939; being rounded up in June 1944 and put on a transport to Auschwitz; ending up in Strasshof, a transit camp in Austria; starting on a transport toward Bergen-Belsen, a concentration camp in Germany, but turning back to Strasshof because of an air raid that destroyed part of the railroad; her liberation by Soviet troops in 1945; and immigrating to the United States after the war.

    Oral history interview with Dora Goldstein Roth

    Oral history interview with Dora Goldstein Roth

    Oral History

    Dora Goldstein Roth, born on February 1, 1932 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her family and early childhood; her father’s participation in the Zionist movement; being forced to live inside the Vilnius ghetto; her deportation to the Kaiserwald-Riga, Dinenwerke, and Stutthof camps with her sister and mother; seeing her mother die from hunger; her sister's death in the camp; difficult memories including mass rape of camp inmates, forced labor, and struggling to survive from day to day; deciding while she was still in the camps that she wanted to immigrate to Palestine after the war because she wanted to be surrounded by Jewish people; her liberation by Russian forces; staying in a Jewish hospital for three years to recover from injuries and disease; immigrating to Israel in 1952; getting married and having children; her identity as a mother and Holocaust survivor; and working for the United Jewish Appeal.

    Oral history interview with Yocheved Arie

    Oral history interview with Yocheved Arie

    Oral History

    Yocheved Arie, born in Vilnius, Lithuania on February 15, 1928, discusses the German occupation of Lithuania; how her father and brother were taken away while she and her mother had to go to the ghetto; poor sanitation in the ghetto; aktions in the ghetto carried out by the Germans; the deportation of her mother to Estonia; reuniting with her mother in Estonia; being transported to Stutthof; going to Gdansk where she was forced to make railroad tracks; being liberated along with her mother and several others on the second day of a death march shortly before the end of the war; her postwar return to Vilnius where she and her mother found no survivors from their family; trying to immigrate to Palestine, but remaining in a displaced persons camp in Germany for three years; immigrating to Jerusalem; living with her mother for 40 years until her mother’s death; and her deep understanding about the heroism of Jewish mothers during the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Leo Hanin

    Oral history interview with Leo Hanin

    Oral History

    Leo Hanin, born in 1913 in Vilnius, Lithuania, describes his family; his parents’ decision to escape increasing persecution in Europe and move to Harbin, China, where they had a relative, in 1916; the lively Jewish community but not having many relations with the native Chinese; attending a Russian school in Harbin until 1929; moving with his brother to Shanghai around 1934 to attend a British school; getting married in 1936 and moving to Kōbe-shi, Japan to do work for a textile firm; assisting the Joint Distribution Committee in New York to arrange for funds to be sent to Japan to support refugees coming over from Europe; his participation in a Zionist organization and moving to Israel in 1948; staying in Israel for two years and then moving back to Japan; his experiences with helping people adjust to life in Kōbe-shi and immigrate to the United States; and dealing with the rumors that the Jewish leadership of Kōbe-shi stole money donated to them to help refugees.

    Oral history interview with Walter Schnell

    Oral history interview with Walter Schnell

    Oral History

    Walter Schnell, born on April 16, 1904 in Strehlen, Germany (Strzelin, Poland), describes his family and childhood; going to study crystal and porcelain in Berlin, Germany in the early 1920s; having to sell his family’s porcelain and glass business in 1937 because anti-Jewish business laws were becoming too strict; moving to Wrocław after the business sold with his sister and parents; working for a family friend in a wholesale business in Wrocław; his arrest during Kristallnacht and being sent by train through Weimar and on to Buchenwald; being forced to watch the hangings of those prisoners who had escaped from the camp and been caught; being called into the camp’s main office on the second day of Hanukkah and told that his parents had booked him a passage for Panama; finally securing a passage on a ship from Wrocław to Genoa, Italy after jumping through much red tape with Gestapo officials in Wrocław; staying in Genoa for a short time until he traveled on a boat to Shanghai because he did not need official papers to get in; settling in Hongkou, the Jewish suburb of Shanghai; Allied planes accidentally bombing the Jewish quarter of Shanghai; the creation of a Jewish community with its own traditions in Shanghai, including establishing nine hundred yeshivas, keeping kosher, and maintaining a synagogue; discovering that his mother and two cousins had made it to New York; and joining his family in New York after the war.

    Oral history interview with Erna Tebel Stern

    Oral history interview with Erna Tebel Stern

    Oral History

    Erna Tebel Stern, born on October 28, 1901 in Krotoszyn, Poland, describes her childhood; her father’s experiences when he served in the German Army against Russia during World War I; moving to Wroclaw, Poland after the war; not experiencing much official discrimination when Hitler first came to power because her father had served in the German Army; her family’s decision to flee from their home in 1938 when they discovered that prison camps existed; her parents’ capture and deportation; managing to escape to Brussels, Belgium, where she, her first husband, and her brother boarded the S.S. St. Louis and fled for Cuba; her brother’s and first husband’s deportation to an internment camp in Gurs, France after the St. Louis had to return to Brussels; going into hiding from 1940 to 1942 in Brussels, where she met her second husband; attempting to flee in 1942 to Switzerland, where they were imprisoned for a short time and then released to the Salvation Army; moving to Bern, Switzerland, where she worked as a housemaid until the end of the War; returning to Belgium in 1945 with her second husband and opening a blouse manufactory; and marrying her second husband in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Gerda Blachmann Wilchfort

    Oral history interview with Gerda Blachmann Wilchfort

    Oral History

    Gerda Blachmann Wilchfort, born on April 24, 1923 in Wrocław, Poland, describes her family and childhood; experiencing antisemitism and losing friends after Hitler came to power; her memories of the destruction of Kristallnacht; a cousin in Cuba attaining visas for her and her parents to immigrate to Havana, Cuba; booking a passage on the St. Louis and being forced to return to Europe after Cuba and the United States would not accept the ship; arriving in Antwerp, Belgium and signing papers that said they would not work and would accept their status as a refugee; living off a small budget from the United Jewish Appeal; crossing the Belgium border into France by foot but not finding a much better living situation; discovering a castle in the French countryside in which to stay for a few nights; returning to Belgium and moving back into their old apartment building, where they stayed for a couple of years; becoming a seamstress to make some money for her family; joining an underground group with her mother and crossing into France and then Switzerland; finding an apartment building in which to live; discovering that Hitler had died and that the war was coming to an end; and immigrating to the United States to create a new life for herself and her family.

    Oral history interview with Gidon Arye

    Oral history interview with Gidon Arye

    Oral History

    Gidon Arye, born in Vilnius, Lithuania in 1928, describes growing up in an upper middle class family; moving into the Vilnius ghetto in 1941 and being separated from his family; living in the Vilnius ghetto throughout the war and sometimes hiding or working illegally; avoiding the early deportations; escaping roundups and going to the Kailis work camp; smuggling his way into the same work camp that his father; reuniting with his father at the Heeres-Kraftfahr-Park work camp, where they worked for an elderly German fixing automobile machinery; surviving in the camp for some time and avoiding Nazi Aktions and a transfer of inmates to Kaunas, Lithuania; Nazi soldiers retreating from the Allies throughout July 1944; going into hiding with a local carpenter who was an acquaintance of his father from before the war; leaving Vilnius through Poland, Germany, and then France in 1945 with his father and fiancée; and immigrating to Israel in 1948.

    Oral history interview with Carl Knuemann

    Oral history interview with Carl Knuemann

    Oral History

    Carl Knuemann, born on November 15, 1922 in Bydgoszcz, Poland, describes his family and childhood; moving to Germany in 1932 because his father had German citizenship and was a businessman; his father not finding a job and contracting tuberculosis, which allowed him to get a pension from the government since he was a veteran of World War I; his father’s work with Doctor Goerdeler and Albert Einstein in plotting against Hitler; working as a courier in the underground movement; his memories of Kristallnacht; escaping to Hungary after the war broke out and then returning to Berlin once the Nazis invaded Hungary; meeting a Dane in a restaurant and joining the Danish resistance movement by running guns between locations; being drafted and sent to Denmark; his father being too ill to participate in the July 20 plot against Hitler; working in the German armament industry in 1943 and sneaking information out to Allied contacts; and his considerations on his participation in the resistance movement during the war.

    Oral history interview with Michael Vogel

    Oral history interview with Michael Vogel

    Oral History

    Michael Vogel, born on November 29, 1923 in Jacovce, Czechoslovakia, describes moving to and growing up in Topol'čany, Czechoslovakia; the takeover of Topol'čany by the Hlinka Guard in 1939; his deportation to the Slovak-run Novaky prison camp in 1942; his deportation to Auschwitz in late 1942; working in forced labor in camps around Auschwitz, first in the Buna works and then in the Birkenau "Kanada" detachment, where he unloaded incoming trains; his transfer by cattle car to Sachsenhausen and then to Dachau as the Allies neared in late 1944; his final transfer to the Landsberg sub-camp of Dachau; escaping during a death march from Landsberg by hiding in the woods; his liberation by United States forces two weeks after escaping; following the 74th Tank Battalion on their tour through Germany and Czechoslovakia; swearing himself into the United States Army at a G.I. Camp Home Run in Le Havre, France in November 1945 and receiving American citizenship; taking a position doing laundry at Camp Home Run; and eventually immigrating to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Nina Schuster Merrick

    Oral history interview with Nina Schuster Merrick

    Oral History

    Nina Schuster Merrick, born in Rokitno, Poland in 1929, describes growing up in a religious family; attending Hebrew school as a child; hiding with her family in the woods during the 1939 bombing raids; her family’s forced move into a ghetto in Berezdiv, Ukraine when the Germans invaded Poland; forced labor, including peeling potatoes for German soldiers; the SS raid of her home in August 1942 and jumping out a window to avoid getting caught; hiding in the woods and eventually being taken in by a sympathetic Ukrainian general, who was involved with a partisan group; learning to be a nurse and working in the partisan group; the General sending her to Moscow, Russia on February 18, 1943, so she could attend technical school; working in a Moscow factory, where she remained until after the war; going to a Jewish collective farm in Germany; an aunt from Washington, DC contacting her in February 1947; and immigrating to the United States to live with her aunt in late 1947.

    Oral history interview with Eva Rozencwajig Stock

    Oral history interview with Eva Rozencwajig Stock

    Oral History

    Eva Rozencwajig Stock, born on January 15, 1919 in Kozienice, Poland, describes her family; the establishment of the Kozienice ghetto in 1939 and moving into it; bribing officials to have her family taken together to Skarżysko-Kamienna, a forced labor camp in Poland, during the liquidation of the ghetto; managing to move her family to Szydlowiec and then to Pionki, Poland, where they worked in an ammunition factory; the deportation of her father and brother to Mauthausen, where they both died; being deported to Auschwitz with her mother and sisters; their transfer to Bergen-Belsen and then to Elsnig, a sub-camp of Buchenwald in Germany; returning to Poland at the end of the war and then leaving in 1949 for Israel; and immigrating to the United States in 1959.

    Oral history interview with Ivo Herzer

    Oral history interview with Ivo Herzer

    Oral History

    Ivo Herzer, born in Zagreb, Yugoslavia (Croatia) on February 5, 1925, describes his early childhood; the introduction of anti-Jewish, Serb, and Romani legislation in 1941 by the Croatian Ustaša government; his arrest at sixteen years of age by a Croatian official and going to a transit camp in the outskirts of Zagreb for a short period until an Ustaša officer told him to return home; escaping with his family in July 1941 to the Italian-Croatian border and ending up in Gospić, Yugoslavia (Croatia); being put onto a military train, returning them to Croatia; escaping the train with the help of smugglers; moving to Susak, Croatia, where they hid for one month; Italian authorities sending his family and about sixty other Jewish refugees to Crikvenica, Croatia, where they lived under Italian protection in the Italian zone in Yugoslavia; the Italian authorities placing the Jewish refugees in a camp in 1942 until 1943, when the Italians brought them and two thousand other Jewish refugees into one camp on the island of Arbe, Dalmatia (Croatia); the Italian surrender to the Germans in 1943 and fleeing to southern Italy to the Allied occupied part of Italy; traveling with his family to the Croatian island of Vis and getting picked up by a British military ship and taken to Bari, Italy; the British directing his family to Taranto, Italy, where they were placed in a camp under British control; leaving the British camp and traveling to Bari; working as a translator and typist for the British Army in Bari after he was liberated; moving to Rome, Italy to work for the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee from 1946 to 1948; and immigrating to the United States in 1955.

    Oral history interview with Boleslaw Brodecki

    Oral history interview with Boleslaw Brodecki

    Oral History

    Boleslaw Brodecki, born in March 1921 in Warsaw, Poland, describes his family; the German invasion in September 1939; boarding a train with his sister and escaping to Rostov, Russia while she went to Prużana, Poland; rejoining his sister in Prużana after the German invasion of Soviet territories in June 1941; entering the Prużana ghetto and staying there until he was deported to Birkenau in the winter of 1941 or 1942; being marched to Auschwitz I and then to Swietochlowice, Poland, where he worked in a machine factory making parts for airplanes; being sent on a forced march as the Russian army approached; arriving in Mauthausen and working in a nearby factory; being marched to various camps including Gräditz-Bareza, Flossenbürg, and Theresienstadt; his liberation in Theresienstadt by Soviet forces in 1945; going to a displaced persons camp in Landsberg am Lech, Germany in 1945 and getting a job as a policeman; meeting and marrying his wife, Sonia Brodecki, in the camp in December 1945; having a son and then immigrating to the United States in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Irene Weber

    Oral history interview with Irene Weber

    Oral History

    Irene Weber, born in Sosnowiec, Poland, describes her family; attending a Polish school until she was about 10 years old, when the war began; the immediate effects of the war on her family, including the closing of her father’s business and the German raids on her home; her father and brother secretly educating her at home; receiving a work card and having to cut thread at a factory; being taken from the factory and sent to the Gliwice labor camp; discovering that her father had died of a heart attack shortly before her deportation; staying in Gliwice from March 1943 to May 1945, when she and others were evacuated from the camp because the Russians neared; being taken care of by some of the older female prisoners; her liberation by the International Red Cross in May 1945; being taken to a hospital to recuperate; having no desire to return to her hometown and see the destruction there; staying on a farm instead of going into a displaced persons camp; going to school in Munich, Germany with the help of the UNRRA; and meeting her husband and deciding to immigrate to the United States with him.

    Oral history interview with Josef

    Oral history interview with Josef

    Oral History

    Josef, born on June 25, 1915 in Vienna, Austria, describes his family; moving to Przemyśl, Poland when he was a child; fleeing to Lwów, Poland after the war broke out in 1939; returning to Przemyśl, which came under Russian occupation when Poland was divided between the Russians and the Germans; the German invasion on June 22, 1941; German troops issuing decrees restricting the rights and opportunities of the town’s Jewish population; moving into a designated Jewish ghetto in Przemyśl; meeting his future wife Stefania Podgófrska, who helped his family by smuggling food and other supplies to them in the ghetto; losing both of his parents during a ghetto Aktion; his deportation from the ghetto on November 18, 1942; using pliers he had in his pocket to cut through the wires covering the small window in the train car and jumping out of the train; getting slightly injured but being able to walk to Lipowice, Poland, where a friend provided him with shelter for a night and smuggled him back into Przemyśl the next morning; immediately going to Stefania, who hid him in her apartment for several days until he could smuggle himself back into the ghetto to be with one of his brothers; Stefania obtaining false papers for him and a few of his friends in the ghetto and finding a small cottage where they could hide; leaving the ghetto to meet with Stefania and her younger sister and to construct hiding places; hiding in the cottage with thirteen people for almost two years; his liberation by Russian troops and marrying Stefania; moving to Kraków and then to Wrocław, Poland, where he graduated from dental school; and immigrating to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Stanislaw Soszynski

    Oral history interview with Stanislaw Soszynski

    Oral History

    Stanislaw Soszynski, born on February 24, 1931 in Warsaw, Poland, describes his neighborhood in Warsaw on Swietojerska Street; the destruction of Warsaw and the Germans opening the Warsaw Ghetto; living in an apartment where the front part was on the Aryan side, and the back part was on the ghetto side, which helped smuggling operations later in the war; going out of the ghetto area to get milk and sell it to support his family; his memories of the Warsaw Ghetto uprising; the massive destruction of the ghetto after the uprising; and the uprising in 1944.

    Oral history interview with Abraham Lewent

    Oral history interview with Abraham Lewent

    Oral History

    Abraham Lewent, born in July 1924 in Warsaw, Poland, describes his family; entering the Warsaw ghetto after the German occupation; hiding in a crawl space during a 1942 German raid and witnessing the capture of his mother and sisters; being deployed for forced labor nearby but escaping to return to his father in the ghetto; remaining in the ghetto until the uprising; his and his father’s deportation in 1943 to Majdanek, where his father died; his transfers to Skarzysko-Kamienna, Buchenwald, Schlieben, Bisingen, and finally to Dachau; and his liberation by American troops.

    Oral history interview with Miriam Storch Lewent

    Oral history interview with Miriam Storch Lewent

    Oral History

    Miriam Storch Lewent, born on June 26, 1926 in Zamość, Poland, describes her family and childhood; fleeing her home when the Germans invaded Poland in 1939; her family’s internment by Soviet forces and being deported to Siberia; cutting down trees to earn food rations near Tomsk, Russia; the Soviets releasing her and her family when the Soviet Union went to war with Germany in June 1941; her two brothers registering with the Russian Army and the rest of her family settling in Kazakhstan, where they lived for the rest of the war; her father teaching Hebrew to Jewish children in their new home; attempting to return to Poland after the war but encountering too much antisemitism; and immigrating to the United States in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Liane Reif-Lehrer

    Oral history interview with Liane Reif-Lehrer

    Oral History

    Liane Reif-Lehrer, born in Vienna, Austria in November 1934, describes growing up in a middle-class family; obtaining a passport in 1938 to immigrate to the United States but not being able to go when her father, a dentist, killed himself because he had to close his practice; traveling with her brother and mother to Hamburg, Germany in 1939 to board the St. Louis, which was bound for Cuba; arriving in Cuba and having to return to Europe, where they ended up in France; getting a visa to immigrate to the United States after staying in France for two-and-a-half years; traveling through Spain and leaving Europe from Lisbon, Portugal on the S.S. Exeter and arriving in the United States on November 10, 1941; living with the sister of Liane's father and her children in New York; earning her Ph.D. in chemistry from the University of California at Berkeley and working for many years as an Associate Professor at Harvard Medical School; and now working as a consultant and a writer.

    Oral history interview with Preben Munch-Nielsen

    Oral history interview with Preben Munch-Nielsen

    Oral History

    Preben Munch-Nielsen, born in 1926 in Snekkersten, Denmark, describes growing up in a Protestant family; attending school in Copenhagen; the German invasion of Denmark in 1940; becoming a courier in the resistance and being one of the youngest resistance fighters; helping to hide refugees in houses near the shore and to get them on boats to Sweden once the Gestapo began hunting down Jews in Denmark in October 1943; taking refuge in Sweden in November 1943 and joining the Danish Brigade, in which he fought as a soldier for eighteen months; helping to smuggle arms into Denmark for resistance fighters; and settling in Denmark in May 1945 after the war.

    Oral history interview with Anny Rubinstein Kast

    Oral history interview with Anny Rubinstein Kast

    Oral History

    Anny Rubinstein Kast, born in Poland in 1926, describes moving to Belgium when she was two months old; her family and her childhood in Belgium; attending school in Antwerp before the war; the German invasion of Belgium on May 10, 1940; someone reporting to the Germans that her family was the only Jewish one left in their neighborhood and then being picked up a few days later; living with the aunt of a friend during her family’s deportation and taking on a false identity; studying German, English, and mathematics lessons during the war; her liberation in 1944 when the English troops entered her town; her uncle finding her and opening up a fur store in Antwerp to support her and other surviving family members; immigrating to Israel after the war; and getting married in 1967.

    Oral history interview with Helen Waterford

    Oral history interview with Helen Waterford

    Oral History

    Helen Waterford, born in Germany in April 14, 1909, discusses her 1933 marriage; her move to Amsterdam in 1934; working for many years to help Jews from Germany relocate to the Netherlands; going into hiding in October 1942 with her husband but without her daughter; the Germans discovering them on August 26, 1944 and interrogating them for two days about the network of people who assisted them in hiding; her deportation to Westerbork and then to Auschwitz-Birkenau; her husband’s death in Auschwitz; remaining in Birkenau until October 1944, when she was forced to work in the Kratzau factory in Czechoslovakia; going into a prisoner of war camp, where she remained until her liberation; traveling to a displaced persons camp at Plzen, Czechoslovakia; returning to the Netherlands, where she reunited with her daughter; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with Thomas Ward

    Oral history interview with Thomas Ward

    Oral History

    Thomas Ward, born on August 10, 1921 in St. Louis, MO, describes joining the army when he was twenty years old; serving in General Patton's Third Army; working as a part of a three-person reconnaissance team in the Third Cavalry division; liberating 18,000 prisoners from the Ebensee concentration camp on May 5th, 1945; liberating a neighboring camp for women several days later; taking photographs in the camps (which he sent to the Supreme Allied Command); and his views on Holocaust denial.

    Oral history interview with Fred R. Wohl

    Oral history interview with Fred R. Wohl

    Oral History

    Fred R. Wohl, born in 1914 in Baden-Baden, Germany, describes growing up in Germany after World War I; leaving to work on a farm in Switzerland in 1932 for four months; working in Athens, Greece in 1935 and trying to get a Greek passport for fear of what the Germans were planning; moving to Nicosia, Cyprus in March 1939 with the help of the British Ambassador to Athens; the German invasion of Greece and being interned with refugees in a camp next to the Nicosia prison; being sent to a hotel-camp in the mountains with his father but soon being released; the Nazi invasion of Crete in 1941 and preparing for evacuation; traveling to Tel Aviv, Israel and then to Mwanza, Tanzania; working in a gold mine and contracting black water fever in Tanganyika, Tanzania; and immigrating to the United States in 1946.

    Oral history interview with Norbert Yasharoff

    Oral history interview with Norbert Yasharoff

    Oral History

    Norbert Yasharoff, born in 1930 in Sofia, Bulgaria, describes the anti-Jewish measures enforced by the Nazis when World War II began; Bulgaria joining the Axis Alliance in March 1941, allowing German troops to pass through Sofia; the expulsion of some Jewish families to Poland in March 1943 and a bloody protest soon after; leaving with his family to Pleven, Bulgaria in May 1943 and staying with family members; attending a Gentile school while in Pleven, where his teacher did not force him to perform the Nazi salute; his liberation on September 9, 1944 and returning to Sofia with his family; immigrating to Israel in December 1948; joining the volunteer air force, where he trained as a radar technician; graduating with a degree from Tel Aviv University in Political Science and residing in Israel for twenty years; and working in an American Embassy for nine years until he immigrated to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Frank Meissner

    Oral history interview with Frank Meissner

    Oral History

    Frank Meissner, born in Třešt̕, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic) in 1923, describes his family; joining a Zionist youth group and traveling to Prague, Czech Republic to live with other members of the group in 1937; the group’s fear of anti-Jewish Nazi policies and subsequently leaving Czechoslovakia to settle in Denmark; attending agricultural school at the University of Copenhagen; receiving a call in 1943 from his landlady, who warned him to not return home because the Gestapo had been looking for him; being smuggled onto a fishing boat to Sweden, where he finished his education; traveling to England in September 1944 and starting to contact his family but learning that they had all been taken to Theresienstadt (Terezin) and eventually to Auschwitz, where they perished; returning briefly to Prague and then going to Denmark in 1946; and immigrating to the United States in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Mina Perlberger

    Oral history interview with Mina Perlberger

    Oral History

    Mina Perlberger, born on December 25, 1918 in Tyczyn, Poland, describes growing up in a strict Hasidic Jewish family; the German invasion of Poland while her family was in the process of moving to Kraków in 1939; her family’s assignment to do forced labor outside of Tyczyn; working as a black market trader until 1942, when her family's home was seized by the Gestapo; being forced into the ghetto in Rzeszów, Poland; the deportation of her parents to Auschwitz in late 1942; escaping the ghetto with her younger sister and hiding with a Polish farmer in exchange for a payment; hiding with the farmer for 21 months until the Soviet Army liberated them in 1944; meeting her future husband, a Soviet Jew, in Blażowa, Poland; marrying her husband and moving to Austria after the war with the help of a Jewish organization; and immigrating to the United States soon after arriving in Austria.

    Oral history interview with David Klebanow

    Oral history interview with David Klebanow

    Oral History

    David Klebanow, born in 1907 in Barysaŭ, Russia (now Belarus), describes his family and childhood; fleeing to Kiev, Ukraine in 1917 after the Russian Revolution and then to Białystok, Poland; becoming a doctor in 1937 and then being drafted into the Polish Army in 1939; returning to Białystok when he was released from the army and then marrying his wife; being taken to Kaunas, Lithuania and then to Riga, Latvia with his wife; performing abortions to save the lives of pregnant women and staying in Riga for two years; his deportation to Stutthof and then to Danzig, from where they were liberated on March 10, 1945; his wife dying of tuberculosis; working at the Munich University Hospital as an obstetrician after the war; noticing genital abnormalities, sterility problems, and a higher rate of miscarriages among women who had survived concentration camps; and immigrating in 1951 to the United States, where he joined the obstetrics department at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York.

    Oral history interview with Franz Wohlfahrt

    Oral history interview with Franz Wohlfahrt

    Oral History

    Franz Wohlfahrt, born in 1920 in Velden am Wörthersee, Austria, describes growing up in a family of Jehovah's Witnesses; the arrest of his father in 1936 for peddling in the street as part of his activities as a Jehovah’s Witness; the German annexation of Austria in 1938; refusing to go to a Hitler Youth meetings and say the “Heil Hitler” greeting, which resulted in German troops monitoring his activities; the execution of his father on December 7, 1939 and his brother soon after because they refused to participate in the war and fight for the German state; the general persecution of Jehovah’s Witnesses during World War II since they would not worship Hitler; agreeing to do work for the German state but not participate in military exercises, which resulted in his imprisonment in a dungeon for thirty-three days in 1940; being transferred to the Gestapo office in Graz for further questioning; his deportation to a work camp at Allweiter Rodgau, in the Hessen-Nassau province, because he would not fight for the German state; being saved by a camp commandant’s wife because he painted wall paper for her; his liberation by Allied troops while he was still in the camp; and returning home to find that few people he knew had survived.

    Oral history interview with Tove Schöbaum Bamberger

    Oral history interview with Tove Schöbaum Bamberger

    Oral History

    Tove Schöbaum Bamberger, born on October 8, 1934 in Copenhagen, Denmark, describes growing up in a wealthy family; her father’s ownership of a men’s clothing business; attending first and second grade at a Jewish school before her family fled from Denmark on October 2, 1940; taking a train to the seaport in Snekkersten, Denmark and then traveling on a fishing boat until a Swedish ship intercepted them at sea and took them to Sweden, where they settled in Malmö; her father working in a chocolate factory and selling artificial teeth; her mother selling lingerie; attending school with her sister; returning to Copenhagen on May 28, 1945 to find her family home and store undisturbed; and immigrating to the United States with her husband in 1956.

    Oral history interview with Morris Gordon

    Oral history interview with Morris Gordon

    Oral History

    Morris Gordon, born in Latvia, describes immigrating with his father to the United States; growing up in New York, NY; attending City College and Columbia University; being ordained as a rabbi in 1940; volunteering for the military in 1942; his participation in The Flying Tigers; going to India briefly then Burma; traveling through the jungles of Burma to get to different camps and getting lost three times; taking his Torah with him everywhere he went; arriving in Shanghai as a Jewish chaplain and being greeted by a large Jewish community; conducting a Bar Mitzvah with a boy; his memories of the Shanghai Jewish ghetto and its schools; and receiving a chalice from a Catholic chaplain during the war to help him perform his services.

    Oral history interview with Raya Markon

    Oral History

    Raya Markon, born in 1911 in Vilnius, Lithuania, discusses her childhood; going to college for one year in Toulouse, France; getting married in Paris, France in 1936; her husband's mobilization into the French Army in 1938; her escape from Paris two days before the German invasion in 1940; returning to Toulouse to take refuge with friends and the birth of her son; getting a visa to the United States and difficulties in obtaining an exit visa from France; and her and her family's immigration to the United States in November 1942.

    Oral history interview with Ernest G. Heppner

    Oral history interview with Ernest G. Heppner

    Oral History

    Ernest G. Heppner, born in 1921 in Germany, describes his experiences with antisemitism in his youth; participating in a Jewish youth organization; his father’s positive experiences running a factory in the mid-1930s; being kicked out of school and learning how to weld; losing any sense of hope for German Jews after his experiences on Kristallnacht; his family being forced to sell their house and considering immigration; he and his mother getting a place on a steamship to Shanghai, China by giving the captain of the ship some of their Impressionist paintings; arriving in Shanghai in March 1939; his mother finding a job with a youth committee; communicating through letters with his father and sister back home a few times before never hearing from them again; participating in the British Boy Scout Association in Shanghai; seeing the Imperial Japanese Naval Landing Party come into Shanghai after Pearl Harbor and acting as a British spy; the Jews of Shanghai being forced into a ghetto-like area of the city in February 1943; finding a job in a bakery and meeting his future wife in the ghetto; getting married shortly before the end of the war and going to work for the American occupying forces; his memories of life in the ghetto; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with Emanuel Mandel

    Oral history interview with Emanuel Mandel

    Oral History

    Emanuel Mandel, born in 1936 in Riga, Latvia, describes his family moving to Budapest, Hungary when he was three months old; his family; his father’s work as a cantor that led him to travel around and work in several synagogues in Europe; not understanding that he could not have or do certain things because he was Jewish; the German invasion of Budapest in early 1944; his deportation by cattle car in June 1944 to Bergen-Belsen with his mother; developing pneumonia and not having access to much food while in the camp; developing a sense of comic relief, like by calling a German troop “Popeye,” to survive; participating in a Red Cross inspection of Bergen-Belsen; in January 1945 being taken by German soldiers on a train towards the German-Swiss border and being released in Switzerland, where they were cleaned and fed; traveling to Saint Gallen and then to Caux, Switzerland to stay in a displaced persons center; reuniting with his father after the war; his mother’s decision to go to Heiden after the war to run a one-room school house for six- to fourteen-years olds to learn Hungarian; immigrating to Palestine by a British troop carrier in September 1945 and living in a kibbutz, where his mother took charge of the day shift cooking; and immigrating to the United States in March 1949.

    Oral history interview with Leo Bretholz

    Oral history interview with Leo Bretholz

    Oral History

    Leo Bretholz, born on March 6, 1921 in Vienna, Austria, describes his childhood; his father passing away in 1930 and becoming a father figure for his two younger sisters; long-standing antisemitic attitudes transforming into excessive violence after the Anschluss in 1938; the arrest of his friends and his mother encouraging him to flee to Luxembourg, where he had an aunt; being arrested three days after he arrived in Luxembourg, questioned for several hours, and released to a train station; returning to Luxembourg and staying with relatives until he had the opportunity to cross the border into Belgium on November 9, 1938 and go to Antwerp, where he found distant relatives and stayed until May of 1940; receiving an affidavit and visa from an aunt in Baltimore, MD to immigrate to the United States but being unable to leave because Pearl Harbor was bombed the day he was scheduled to go; obtaining the necessary documents to cross into Switzerland in October 1942, but getting arrested and taken to Rivesaltes; his deportation to Drancy, another French detention camp, where he stayed for a short time before he and other prisoners were loaded onto cattle cars for transport; escaping deportation by bending the bars covering one of the train’s windows and squeezing through and jumping out of the train; making his way to Paris, where he obtained a false identification card; his arrest in December and then being sent to prison for nine months until he went to a forced labor camp in Septfonds, France; escaping from the camp and contacting a friend who got him in touch with an underground resistance group in Saint-Vallier, France, which he joined in November 1943; helping children cross the border into Switzerland, making false ID cards, and relaying messages between various resistance organizations; working with the resistance after D-Day and helping the Allied forces; and receiving an affidavit from his aunt in Baltimore that allowed him to immigrate to the United States in 1946.

    Oral history interview with Paul Matasovski

    Oral history interview with Paul Matasovski

    Oral History

    Paul Matasovski, born in Bacău, Moldavia (now Romania) in December 1933, describes his family and early childhood; his family getting a radio in 1933 to find out what Hitler was doing in Europe; the political situation with the Iron Guard and General Antonescu; the Jews having their radios taken from their homes but receiving news by passing around sheets of paper; attending a Jewish high school until the end of 1942, when he was sent to work in a textile factory; participating in sabotage activities until he was arrested in the spring of 1944; remaining in a prison near the Carpathian Mountains until Russian forces liberated him; his knowledge of transports and concentration camps during the war; the composition of the people in his underground group and their activities; and returning to his hometown to help clean up the mess after the war.

    Oral history interview with Zelda Piekarska Brodecki

    Oral history interview with Zelda Piekarska Brodecki

    Oral History

    Zelda Piekarska Brodecki (Americanized name, Sonia Brodecki), born on July 27, 1928 in Sosnowiec, Poland, describes her family; the German occupation of her town and her family having to close their business; entering the Sosnowiec ghetto and being forced to work in a factory; her deportation from the ghetto to a forced labor camp near Wrocław, Poland; her transfer in 1943 to another labor camp in Klettendorf, Germany (Klecina, Wrocław, Poland); Russian troops liberating her at an ammunition factory in Ludwigsdorf, a sub-camp of Gross-Rosen in Germany; returning to Sosnowiec after the war and meeting her cousin there; moving to the Landsberg am Lech displaced persons camp, where she met her husband, Boleslaw Brodecki; and living in Germany until 1949 when she and her husband immigrated to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Stefania Podgórska Burzminski

    Oral history interview with Stefania Podgórska Burzminski

    Oral History

    Stefania Podgórska Burzminski, born in Lipa, Poland, describes her family and childhood; helping her parents run a farm until she decided to move with her sister to Przemyśl and work in a bakery; the Russian invasion and not noticing much of a change in life until the Germans ousted the Russians; living in an apartment near the ghetto and witnessing people being deported from it; developing a relationship with a young man named Josef, who was Jewish and lived in the ghetto; having to explain what a Jew was to her little sister; helping to smuggle food into the ghetto for Josef and his family; moving into a large apartment and taking Josef and twelve other Jews in with her; having an SS man insist upon taking a room in her apartment and always living in fear that he would kill the Jews living there; and her liberation by Russian forces.

    Oral history interview with Rose Galek Brunswic

    Oral history interview with Rose Galek Brunswic

    Oral History

    Rose Galek Brunswic, born in Sochocin, Poland in 1920, describes her family; learning Hebrew and participating in a Zionist organization in her youth; moving to Warsaw in the mid-1930s; being forced into the Warsaw ghetto and living with twelve other people; her parents being shot during a roundup; going into hiding with the underground in March 1941; leaving her hiding place and finding another one in the city with an old work friend of her father; being caught by the Germans during a raid and sent by cattle car to Berlin; using her false papers to get a job on a farm; pretending to be a Seventh Day Adventist and playing the organ for the church; getting in trouble for not having the proper identification and having to do translations for a judge as penance; her liberation by American soldiers in 1945 when she was still working on the farm; meeting a Jewish soldier and marrying him; staying in a displaced persons camp after the war until she immigrated to the United States to live with her uncle; and settling in Buffalo, New York, where she attended school.

    Oral history interview with Renée Schwalb Fritz

    Oral history interview with Renée Schwalb Fritz

    Oral History

    Renée Schwalb Fritz, born in 1937 in Vienna, Austria, describes her family; her father leaving for the United States in 1939 and fleeing with her mother to Belgium; the German occupation of Belgium in 1940 and going into hiding in a convent, where she remained for two years until the Germans became suspicious; the underground taking Renee to a Protestant family's farm and then to an orphanage; reuniting with her mother after the war and discovering that she had survived Auschwitz; joining her father in the United States five years later; going through high school in the US with much difficulty; attending Boston University; and marrying an American man soon after she graduated from college.

    Oral history interview with Martin Spett

    Oral history interview with Martin Spett

    Oral History

    Martin Spett, born on December 2, 1928 in Tarnów, Poland, describes his childhood; the German occupation of Tarnów in 1939; his family losing their apartment in 1940; hiding in an attic when the first massacre of Jews occurred; having to finally register as a Jew in May 1943 and go to Bergen-Belsen, where he was allegedly to be part of an exchange for German prisoners of war; being liberated on April 13, 1945 by Allied troops during his transport to Theresienstadt; spending some time in Belgium after the war; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with Ion Cioaba

    Oral history interview with Ion Cioaba

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Niels Bamberger

    Oral history interview with Niels Bamberger

    Oral History

    Niels Bamberger, born on October 21, 1928 in Würzburg, Germany, describes growing up in a religious family; fleeing from Germany to his mother's hometown of Copenhagen, Denmark in 1932; his family being warned of imminent danger on Rosh Hashanah of 1943; their local grocer helping them to escape to the port town of Snekkersten, Denmark (the closest point between Denmark and Sweden); receiving help from the local resistance forces and hiding in houses until their group of over two hundred could be transported in row boats; a Swedish military boat intercepting his family at sea and taking them to Sweden; attending school in Lund, Sweden while his parents opened a small restaurant; his family’s return to Denmark on May 28, 1945 to find their old home undisturbed; and getting back on his feet after the war.

    Oral history interview with Ray Buch

    Oral history interview with Ray Buch

    Oral History

    Ray Buch, born on September 18, 1920 in New York City, NY, describes his parents and their emigration from Ukraine; joining the US Army in November 1942 and going into training in Louisiana and Texas for a year; being shipped to England in September 1944; fighting in the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944 and encountering fighting and violence; finding out about the concentration camps and death camps; his unit’s attempts to bury people who had died alongside the roads; arriving in Mauthausen on May 10, 1945 and the scenes of people and depravation he witnessed; forcing the German citizens to bury the dead; spending about thirty days in Mauthausen and then moving around to other camps, like Dachau and Ebensee; and the sacrifices his unit made for the sake of the freedom of Europe and the United States.

    Oral history interview with Nina Kaleska

    Oral history interview with Nina Kaleska

    Oral History

    Nina Kaleska, born on April 11, 1929 in Grodno, Poland (now Hrodna, Belarus), describes having a pleasant childhood; her family not being perceived of as Jewish because of their Aryan looks; experiencing antisemitism among her childhood friends in 1938; joining the Young Pioneers after the Russians invaded in 1939; her father’s imprisonment for three to four months for political reasons; the German invasion in 1941 and the formation of two ghettos in Grodno; the Germans selecting one of her cousins, who was considered an electronics genius, for forced labor but then killing him; peasant families offering to hide her and her sister but rejecting because she did not want to be separated from her family; being deported with her sister to Auschwitz in 1941; the death of her sister three months after they arrived; becoming sick in the camp several times and only being saved because of the help she received from a woman named Martha who worked there; being asked by Dr. Mengele if she was Jewish because she did not look Jewish; having to stand guard while the head of her lager had sex with some of the most beautiful women in the lager; going on a death march and being liberated by Allied forces on May 5, 1945; and her immigration to England and then to the United States with the help of the American Joint Distribution Committee.

    Oral history interview with Judith Meisel

    Oral history interview with Judith Meisel

    Oral History

    Judith Meisel, born on February 7, 1929 in Josvainiai, Lithuania, discusses her childhood; moving to Kaunas, Lithuania shortly after her father’s death; being forced into the Kaunas ghetto in 1941; her family’s deportation in 1944 to Stutthof, where her mother was killed; escaping with her sister from a death march out of Stutthof by hiding in a coal bin; receiving shelter in a Catholic nunnery; developing typhus and posing as a Christian in a hospital in Danzig, Poland to receive treatment; finding work on a farm with her sister; moving to Copenhagen, Denmark, where she was sent to school; her liberation on May 5, 1945; living with a Jewish family in Denmark for some time after the war; immigrating to Canada in 1948; and immigrating to the United States in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Thomas Buergenthal

    Oral history interview with Thomas Buergenthal

    Oral History

    Thomas Buergenthal, born in 1934 in Czechoslovakia, describes his family; moving with his family to Žilina, Czechoslovakia in 1938 and facing persecution from the Hlinka Guard; moving to Katowice, Poland and registering with the British Consul; leaving for England on September 1, 1939 but being stopped near the Russian border when their train was bombed by Germans; having to march with a group of refugees to Kielce, Poland and go into its ghetto; the deportation of his grandparents and twenty thousand other ghetto inhabitants in August 1942 to Treblinka while he and his parents were sent to a forced labor camp in Kielce; surviving a massacre of Jewish children and then being transported with his parents to a factory where they made wooden carts for the Eastern Front; his deportation in August 1944 to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where he worked in the laundry as an errand boy; getting separated from his father and never seeing him again; being forced on a death march to Gliwice, Poland and then to Heinkel concentration camp in Oranienburg, Germany in January 1945; his transfer to a sub-camp of Sachsenhausen; his liberation on April 27, 1945 by Russian soldiers; marching with the First Polish Division into Berlin, Germany and Siedlce, Poland and then being placed in a Jewish orphanage in Otwock, Poland; his mother finding him in 1946 and smuggling him into the British zone of Germany; living in Göttingen, Germany and attending high school there; immigrating by himself to the United States in 1951 to live with his uncle; his mother remarrying and staying in Europe; attending Harvard Law School and becoming a professor of International Law at the George Washington University Law School; and serving on the United Nations Human Rights Committee and the United States Holocaust Memorial Council’s Committee on Conscience.

    Oral history interview with Leif Donde

    Oral history interview with Leif Donde

    Oral History

    Leif Donde, born in 1937 in Copenhagen, Denmark, describes his upbringing in a religious but not Orthodox Jewish family; the German occupation of Denmark in April 1940; seeing the German police begin to arrest Jews in early October 1943 and fleeing with his family by train to the Danish city of Nykøbing Falster, south of Sjælland island; being smuggled by a fishing boat to safety in Sweden; arriving in Trelleborg, Sweden after an eleven-hour nighttime boat ride in October 1943, during which they passed through a German mine field; attending school in Sweden while his parents worked in a garment factory in Uddevalla, Sweden; his family returning to Denmark after the end of the war; and settling in Denmark, where he serves as the Consul General.

    Oral history interview with Elizabeth Kaufmann Koenig

    Oral history interview with Elizabeth Kaufmann Koenig

    Oral History

    Elizabeth Kaufmann Koenig, born in Vienna, Austria on March 7, 1924, describes her family and childhood; enjoying the rich cultural life Vienna had to offer before the war; her father’s placement on the Nazi blacklist for being a liberal writer and journalist; attempting to leave Austria and go to France but getting arrested and sent to prison; escaping to Cologne, where her mother managed to attain three visas by giving up some of her jewelry; moving to Paris, where her father found a job as a reporter; attending art school in Paris and meeting her future husband; the deportation of her father and brother to concentration camps when Germany declared war on France; her father’s return home for a short period until he had to join the French Army; running away from Paris and going through several cities until she arrived in Blois, France and began to search for her father; getting separated from her family and asking about their whereabouts wherever she went; reuniting with her mother in Barcus, France; finding a teaching job in Le Chambon-sur-Lignon, France through a family friend who lived there; her family receiving special visas to move to the United States on December 7, 1941 because her father was an intellectual; attending college in the United States; and marrying Ernest, the man she had earlier met in Paris.

    Oral history interview with Max Amichai Heppner

    Oral history interview with Max Amichai Heppner

    Oral History

    Max Amichai Heppner, born on October 15, 1933 in Amsterdam, Netherlands, describes growing up as an only child; his parents’ escape from Berlin, Germany in 1933; the Nazi invasion of the Netherlands and missing a boat to escape to Sweden; losing several of his family’s possessions to the Nazis; his mother getting captured during a street raid but then being released by a Nazi commander in August 1942; escaping into the countryside with his parents and finding various hiding places with another family; going into hiding with underground forces and then with a farming family; dealing with frequent Nazi raids; meeting several downed Allied pilots while in hiding; his liberation by Scottish soldiers on September 24, 1944; his mother’s attempts to shield him from much of the devastation of the war; and immigrating to the United States to live with his mother’s family.

    Oral history interview with Charles Bruml

    Oral history interview with Charles Bruml

    Oral History

    Charles Bruml, born in Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), describes his family and the Prague Jewish community; being about 28 years old and working in an import-export firm in 1938 when German troops marched into Prague; his family’s deportation to Theresienstadt and finding a job in the camp’s Technical Department; making paintings during his internment that are displayed at the camps today; his deportation to Auschwitz on January 11, 1942 and getting tattooed; being transferred to Buna (Monowitz), where he worked as a painter for the SS men until January 18, 1945; being forced to walk to Gleiwitz, because the Russians neared, and then to Bergen-Belsen, where the Red Cross liberated him; and meeting his wife in Prague as they both tried to sort out the fates of their families.

    Oral history interview with David Pollack

    Oral history interview with David Pollack

    Oral History

    David Pollack, born in Prince Albert, Saskatechewan, Canada in 1922, describes growing up in a mildly Jewish family; enlisting in the Royal Canadian Air Force in 1942 but not being accepted as a pilot because of his poor eyesight; being trained as a radar technician and stationed first in the Queen Charlotte Islands and then in England in 1943; joining a mobile radar unit outside of Weimar, Germany in 1945 and visiting Buchenwald, where he was shocked by the horrors of the camp; speaking, with the aid of a translator, to many prisoners, taking the names and the addresses of their relatives who were in other countries, and contacting these relatives to inform them that the prisoners would soon be arriving in displaced persons camps and contacting them for help; returning to Canada after the war; and keeping up correspondence with some of the survivors he had helped to reunite with their families.

    Oral history interview with Eugene Lipman

    Oral history interview with Eugene Lipman

    Oral History

    Rabbi Eugene Lipman, born in Pittsburgh, PA on October 13, 1919, describes his family; graduating from Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, Ohio; being sent overseas as an army chaplain in April 1945; after the war helping Jewish survivors at Buchenwald and Dachau before being sent to Plzen, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); joining the Haganah, a group that cared for Jewish survivors and refugees as well as secretly transporting Jews to Palestine; continuing his work with the Haganah in Regensburg, Germany; going home to the United States for a short time in April 1946 but returning in late 1946 with his wife to continue to aid Jews by providing many with false identity papers for them to leave Europe; and returning to the United States in 1948.

    Oral history interview with Hetty d'Ancona de Leeuwe

    Oral history interview with Hetty d'Ancona de Leeuwe

    Oral History

    Hetty d’Ancona de Leeuwe, born on May 1, 1930 in Amsterdam, Netherlands, describes her family and early childhood; her father losing his business after the German invasion; the deportation of several of her friends and family in 1942; her father’s participation in the Dutch underground newspaper; leaving Amsterdam in October 1943 and separating from her parents to live with a Dutch Gentile family for two years; her liberation by American and British forces and staying with her foster family for a few months until she reunited with her father; and marrying a Jewish man and immigrating to the United States with him after the war.

    Oral history interview with Marty Glickman

    Oral history interview with Marty Glickman

    Oral History

    Marty Glickman, born in 1917 in the Bronx, NY, describes growing up with parents who were immigrants from Romania; attending Syracuse University, where he was a track athlete chosen to compete in the 1936 Berlin Olympics in Germany; being one of two Jews on the United States Olympic track team; arriving in the Olympic Village and being told that he and Sam Stoller, the other Jewish runner, were to be replaced in the 400 meter relay by Ralph Metcalf and Jessie Owens; hearing from the head coach of the Olympic track team that the substitutions were made because the Germans were said to be hiding their best sprinters but believing that he was really replaced because Avery Brundage, president of the American Olympic Committee, did not want to further embarrass the Nazis by having Jews run and win a race; serving in the United States Marine Corps in the Pacific during World War II; going to the Marshall Islands; and his friendship with Jesse Owens.

    Oral history interview with Susie Gruenbaum Schwarz

    Oral history interview with Susie Gruenbaum Schwarz

    Oral History

    Susie Gruenbaum Schwarz, born in 1931 in Schlüchtern, Germany, describes her family; moving to Dinxperlo, a village located close to the German border in the Netherlands in 1933; the German invasion of the Netherlands on May 10, 1940; Jews no longer being allowed to own businesses or to attend schools; going into hiding when they heard that the Jews would be rounded up for deportation in 1943; living with her mother in a barn attic that was barely big enough for them to both lie flat; beginning to write a cookbook-diary in 1944 to pass her time; becoming extremely ill because of a lack of ventilation in her living quarters; recovering from her illness but remaining weak; having to leave her hiding place toward the end of the war because of increased Nazi raids; her liberation on April 1, 1945 by Canadian troops; returning to their former village with food and money supplied to them by the farmers who had hidden them; returning to school as her family tried to re-build their lives; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with Hessy Levinsons Taft

    Oral history interview with Hessy Levinsons Taft

    Oral History

    Hessy Levinsons Taft, born on May 17, 1934 in Berlin, Germany, describes her family and childhood; her parents having her photo taken in 1934 and the photo ending up in a Nazi magazine labeled as a beautiful Berliner baby; her family’s decision to run away to Paris, France, where they were when it fell to the Germans; moving to the French coast near Bordeaux with her mother and sister while her father remained in Paris trying to find a way for the family to leave; her father securing visas for the family to travel to Cuba, where she and her sister began to attend a British school; immigrating to the United States in 1948 and settling in New York, NY; and eventually getting married and starting a family.

    Oral history interview with Bella Jakubowicz Tovey

    Oral history interview with Bella Jakubowicz Tovey

    Oral History

    Bella Jakubowicz Tovey, born on September 18, 1926, in Sosnowiec, Poland, describes growing up in a Jewish family; the German invasion of Poland in 1939 and losing her father’s factory and their family furniture; being forced to move into the Sosnowiec ghetto and to work in a factory there in 1941; her family’s deportation to the Bedzin ghetto in 1942; her deportation to the Graeben sub-camp of Gross-Rosen in Germany in 1943 and then to Bergen-Belsen in 1944; her liberation in April 1945; and immigrating to the United States in 1946.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Krautwirth Meyerowitz

    Oral history interview with Ruth Krautwirth Meyerowitz

    Oral History

    Ruth Krautwirth Meyerowitz, born June 23, 1929 in Frankfurt, Germany, describes her childhood; facing intensifying antisemitic measures that resulted in the loss of her father's business and the closing of her school in the late 1930s; her family’s deportation in 1943 to Auschwitz, where her father was killed; her selection for forced labor and being assigned to work on road repairs; working in the "Kanada" unit sorting possessions brought into the camp; her transfer to the Ravensbrück concentration camp in Germany in November 1944; being sent to Malchow, where she worked in a munitions factory making bullets; her liberation by American soldiers in May 1945 during a death march from the Malchow camp in Germany; traveling to Frankfurt with her mother in August 1945 with hopes of finding the rest of their family; and immigrating with her mother to the United States in early 1947.

    Oral history interview with Peretz Milbauer

    Oral history interview with Peretz Milbauer

    Oral History

    Peretz Milbauer, born in Brooklyn, New York in October 1915, discusses his life up to World War II; teaching history before he was drafted into the United States Army; being sent overseas in July 1944 and arriving to his station in Remse, Germany on December 5, 1944; liberating prisoners from a death march in Wałbrzych, Poland in December 1944; gathering a list of names of survivors from the death march and sending the list to American newspapers and magazines in an effort to help survivors contact their relatives; and also liberating prisoners at Ebensee, a sub-camp of Mauthausen in Austria, in May 1945.

    Oral history interview with Judah Nadich

    Oral history interview with Judah Nadich

    Oral History

    Judah Nadich, born in 1912 in Baltimore, Maryland, describes his life until World War II and training to be a rabbi; enlisting in the army as a chaplain after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor; serving as the senior Jewish chaplain with the United States Army in the United Kingdom and then in France during the war; having his first contact with survivors of Nazi oppression in France; helping Parisian Jews re-build their community; being ordered to Frankfurt, Germany as the Jewish affairs adviser to General Dwight D. Eisenhower and reporting on conditions in displaced persons camps; and returning to the United States in late 1945.

    Oral history interview with Hana Bruml

    Oral history interview with Hana Bruml

    Oral History

    Hana Bruml, born on May 30, 1922 in Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), describes her family and childhood; attending a Zionist elementary school; meeting Rudolph Schiff and marrying him on November 14, 1939; the German invasion of Prague and her father losing his business, receiving ration tickets marked with a “J,” and only being allowed to do certain things at specific times; the deportation of her parents in July 1942 to Theresienstadt followed three weeks later by her and her husband’s deportation to the camp; working in the camp hospital as a nurse; the death of her husband and the development of a romance with Bruno, who worked as an internist in the camp; the special treatment of Danish Jews and a few prominent Austrian and German Jews in Theresienstadt; seeing doctors perform several abortions in the camp to save women; her transport to Auschwitz-Birkenau in October 1944 and seeing Dr. Mengele; and remaining in Auschwitz until May 5, 1945, when she was liberated.

    Oral history interview with Benjamin Meed

    Oral history interview with Benjamin Meed

    Oral History

    Benjamin Meed, born on February 19, 1922 in Warsaw, Poland, describes his family; traveling with a friend in 1939 to Russian territory to escape Nazi persecution; returning to Warsaw because they could not support themselves; joining an underground movement that provided a library and schooling for children; smuggling people to the Aryan side of Warsaw when the ghetto was established; helping his family escape to Praga Południe, Poland, where they hid in a cemetery; beginning to work with a woman named Vladka who was also involved in underground activities; posing as a Christian with Vladka during the war in order to facilitate their work in the underground; moving his hiding place to a bunker which he had built after the Warsaw uprising; jumping onto a Red Cross truck after his liberation to escape persecution by Germans and Poles after the war; reuniting with his parents after the war; and marrying Vladka in Warsaw ten days after liberation.

    Oral history interview with Johanna Neumann

    Oral history interview with Johanna Neumann

    Oral History

    Johanna Neumann, born on December 12, 1930 in Hamburg, Germany, describes her early childhood; her memories of Kristallnacht on November 10, 1938; her family’s decision to leave Germany as anti-Jewish measures intensified; obtaining visas for Albania and leaving Germany without many of her possessions; crossing into Italy and setting sail for Albania on March 1, 1939; remaining in Albania during the Italian and German occupations for a total of six and a half years; finally being liberated after a battle between the Germans and the Albanian partisans in December 1944; spending some time in an Italian displaced persons camp at the port of Tricase in the Lecce province of Apulia in southern Italy; immigrating to the United States in September 1946; and living briefly in Israel for three years from 1969 until 1971.

    Oral history interview with Alice Lang Rosen

    Oral history interview with Alice Lang Rosen

    Oral History

    Alice Lang Rosen, born in 1934 in Lambsheim, Germany, describes her early childhood; the deportation of her family to the Gurs camp in France and then to Rivesaltes when she was six years old; the French Red Cross taking her out of the camp and hiding her from the Germans by placing her in a children's home, then in a convent, and then with various Catholic families; being sent to a children's home near Paris after her liberation; having her name put on a list of Jewish children from all over France, which was being compiled by a Polish rabbi; her father tracing her from this list and reuniting with her in Germany in 1946; and immigrating to the United States in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Jay Ipson

    Oral history interview with Jay Ipson

    Oral History

    Jay Ipson, born June 5, 1935, in Slobodka (Vilijampolė), Lithuania, describes growing up in religious, well-off family; his father's attempts to move his family to Russia but being turned back at the border; losing their home in the move and moving in with his grandmother, whose house was in the Kaunas ghetto; witnessing the deportations from the ghetto; escaping the ghetto with his mother and father in November 1943; hiding in a farmer's hay wagon and then in one room under the care of a poor, religious Polish Catholic family; his father's construction of a hiding place under the Polish family's potato patch; hiding with all of his extended family in the underground bunker; being liberated by the Russian army; moving back to Kaunas with his parents; attending Jewish school; being forced to run away from Kaunas after his father was declared an enemy of the Soviet Republic; changing his last name to Butremovitch and getting false papers; hiding with a Jewish family in White Russia; leaving Warsaw, Poland and traveling to Germany; receiving help from a German man to cross the border to the American occupied-zone of Germany; living with a German family in Prinz Regenten Strasse in Munich for nine months; immigrating to the United States to live with his aunt in Richmond, VA in June 1947; and joining the US military during the Korean War and becoming a colonel in command of an aviation unit.

    Oral history interview with Margaret Jastrow Klug

    Oral history interview with Margaret Jastrow Klug

    Oral History

    Margaret Jastrow Klug, born on June 8, 1923 in Rogoźno, Poland, describes her family and childhood; her brother’s immigration to Scotland before the war; the beginning of the war and being arrested because someone had given them her name; jumping from a window of the jail to avoid deportation to Auschwitz but instead being injured and staying in a hospital for two months; being deported to Auschwitz, where she worked in a factory; getting married and having a daughter after the war; immigrating to Israel in 1949; returning to Germany soon after because the climate in Israel was too uncomfortable for her; and immigrating to the United States in the mid-1950s and settling in Atlanta, Georgia.

    Oral history interview with Solomon Klug

    Oral history interview with Solomon Klug

    Oral History

    Solomon Klug, born on July 9, 1923 in Krzepice, Poland, describes growing up in a religious family with one sister and three brothers; seeing his mother and brother shot in his backyard; his deportation in 1940 to Annaberg, Germany, where he worked building the Autobahn; being transferred in 1943 to Markstadt, Germany, where he built bridges, and then to Fuenfteichen, a sub-camp of Gross-Rosen, in March 23, 1944 to work in an ammunitions factory; his transport to Wolfsberg, another sub-camp of Gross-Rosen; being sent to Politz, Czechoslovakia, Bergen-Belsen, and finally to Barth-an-der-Ostee, a sub-camp of Ravensbrück; going on a three-day death march after his evacuation from Barth-an-der-Ostee; his liberation on April 30, 1945; going to Berlin, Germany after liberation and meeting his wife Margaret; immigrating to Israel, where they lived for four years, and then returning to Nuremberg to spend a year in a displaced persons camp; and immigrating to the United States in 1955 and settling in Atlanta, Georgia.

    Oral history interview with Helene Baraf

    Oral history interview with Helene Baraf

    Oral History

    Helene Baraf, born July 24, 1927 in Antwerp, Belgium, discusses her family and her childhood in Antwerp before World War II; her family's move to the United States in 1937; her return to Belgium with her mother and brother in 1940; traveling to France with her family by train and on foot after the Germans entered Belgium; her family's life in Lille, France; her brother's arrest by the Gestapo and eventual deportation to Auschwitz-Birkenau for failing to properly display his Star of David on his coat; her and her mother's arrest by the Gestapo and their escape during a round up; their rescue from a small hiding place by the members of the underground resistance; her time spent hiding in a convent with other Jewish children in Lille; her attempts to conceal her identity with an assumed name and falsified identification documents; her move from the convent to a "Protestant community" in Roubaix, France, where she attended high school and remained with her mother until after World War II; her friendship with a girl from Roubaix whose family sheltered her and her mother for period of time during the war; the divorce of her parents shortly after the war; and her life in the United States after 1969.

    Oral history interview with Morris Kornberg

    Oral history interview with Morris Kornberg

    Oral History

    Morris Kornberg, born in Przedbórz, Poland on January 6, 1918, describes growing up as the youngest of seven children in a strict Orthodox family; the 1939 German invasion and being forced to work in a factory in the ghetto; his imprisonment in Końskie, a prison in Poland, and then in Radom, Poland and Jawischowitz, a sub-camp of Auschwitz; working in a coal mine and receiving special treatment by SS men because of his memory for numbers; his transfer to Troeglitz, a sub-camp of Buchenwald, in January 1945; the evacuation of Troeglitz on April 9, 1945 and escaping on a train with two others; getting caught and forced on a death march to Leitmeritz, a sub-camp of Flossenbürg, and then to Theresienstadt, where he was liberated; staying in a sanitarium outside of Stuttgart, where he met his wife; and immigrating to the United States in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Michael Diamond

    Oral history interview with Michael Diamond

    Oral History

    Michael Diamond, born on July 10, 1919 in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia), describes his family; his draft into the Czech Army in 1939 but being forced to work in army camps clearing snow off roads and highways when the Slovak State was created; his transfer to Liptovský Mikuláš, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia), where he repaired weapons and became a Slovak-German language interpreter; being moved to Vrútky, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia), where he had to clean old uniforms; working as an electrician in eastern Slovakia; escaping into hiding in the forest but soon getting captured by the Gestapo; his transport to Sered, a "Sommerlager" in Slovakia; attempting to escape from a transport train and then being sent to Sachsenhausen, Heinkelwerke, Buchenwald, Bergen-Belsen, Neuengamme, and Mauthausen; working as an engineer and repairing railroad engines; ending up in Wurttemberg, Germany, where he was marched deeper into Germany as the Allied forces approached; and hiding in a peasant's empty house in Germany until he was liberated by Soviet soldiers.

    Oral history interview with Abraham Malach

    Oral history interview with Abraham Malach

    Oral History

    Abraham Malach, born on May 12, 1935 in Zwoleń, Poland, describes his family; entering the ghetto in Radom, Poland in 1940 and remaining there until 1942; spending 1942 through 1943 at work camps in Poland, where he worked as a messenger boy; his deportation to Auschwitz in 1944; being removed from the group headed to the gas chambers at his first selection by a female Kapo, who molested him and bribed him to keep silent by giving him food for his family; running away to a monastery when Auschwitz was liberated; eventually being taken by nuns to a United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Agency camp; reuniting with his parents in 1946 in Krakow, Poland; his parents sending him to Israel to finish his high school education; and immigrating to New York, NY after high school when he was admitted to Columbia University.

    Oral history interview with Michael Bernath

    Oral history interview with Michael Bernath

    Oral History

    Michael Bernath, born on February 14, 1923 in Szikszó, Hungary, describes growing up in a family with eleven older siblings; working in Budapest, Hungary as a furrier in 1943 and always getting harassed; joining the underground movement in Budapest and working for American and British intelligence services; the German invasion of Hungary in March 1944 and Hungarian gendarmes rounding up five thousand Jewish people from his town and transporting them to Kassa, Czechoslovakia; being forced into a slave labor camp with about 35,000 other men; his deportation to the Schachendorf concentration camp in Austria in the winter of 1944 and being forced to dig trenches and train tracks in the Austrian Alps; Russian forces liberating him and returning to Budapest to live with his aunt and uncle; and his immigration to the United States in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Kate Bernath

    Oral history interview with Kate Bernath

    Oral History

    Kate Bernath, born in August 27, 1927 in Szikszó, Hungary, describes her family and childhood; living a decent life until March 1944 when the Germans occupied Hungary; dating a man to keep herself amused before the occupation; being rounded up and sent to a ghetto in Kassa (Košice, Slovakia); her deportation to Auschwitz in May 1944; her transfer to a factory in Augsburg, Germany to work in a Messerschmitt factory; hearing Allied bombings every night toward the end of the war; her transfer to Mühldorf, where she had to clean up debris from bombings; the guards disappearing one day and escaping to a farmhouse, where they were caught by an SS soldier; her liberation on May 1, 1946 and going to the Feldafing displaced persons camp; returning to Amsterdam and reuniting with her pre-war boyfriend; and getting married in Leipheim, Germany and then immigrating to the United States in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Paul Kovak

    Oral history interview with Paul Kovak

    Oral History

    Paul Kovak, born on December 6, 1938 in Trenčín, Slovakia, describes being born a Jew but converting to Roman Catholicism with his parents; his father’s work as a professor at a small agricultural college; not having to wear the yellow star because of his father’s indispensable position at the school; going into hiding in the second home of a farming family in the mountains in late August 1944 at the time of the Slovak National Uprising; staying in hiding until April 1945, when they were liberated by Russian and Romanian troops; living in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia until 1981; and immigrating to the United States in 1981.

    Oral history interview with Abraham Kolski

    Oral history interview with Abraham Kolski

    Oral History

    Abraham Kolski, born in 1917 in Izbica Lubelska, Poland, describes his family; the German occupation of Poland and going into the Czestochowa ghetto, where he did forced labor at a metal factory; his deportation on October 2, 1942 to Treblinka, Poland, where he performed forced labor searching for valuables in the clothing of gas chamber victims; participating in the Treblinka uprising on August 2, 1943 and escaping the concentration camp with nine other friends; hiding in a cellar of a home near Treblinka for the remainder of the war; eventually being liberated by the Russian Army; remaining in Poland until 1948, when he married and left for France; immigrating to the United States in 1954; and testifying as a witness to the events at Treblinka in the war crimes trials at Düsseldorf.

    Oral history interview with Sylvia Kolski

    Oral history interview with Sylvia Kolski

    Oral History

    Sylvia Kolski, born on September 15, 1925 in Tarczyn, Poland, describes her family and childhood; moving with her aunt, uncle, cousins, and parents into the Warsaw ghetto; working for a tailor in the ghetto; hearing rumors that the Jews would be killed on July 22, 1942; hiding money in her clothing, so she could bribe people to save herself; seeing several major deportations from the ghetto; escaping from the ghetto and staying with a family in the countryside; her liberation on January 16, 1945 and returning to Tarczyn; moving to Łódź, Poland, where she met her husband, and then to Paris, France in 1947; and immigrating to the United States when the Vietnam War began.

    Oral history interview with Steven Springfield

    Oral history interview with Steven Springfield

    Oral History

    Steven Springfield, born in 1923 in Riga, Latvia, describes his experiences as a child; the German occupation of Riga in 1941 and having to go into the ghetto; the massacre of about 28,000 Jews from the ghetto in late 1941 at the Rumbula forest; being transferred with his brother to a small ghetto for able-bodied men; his deportation to a labor camp near Kaiserwald in 1943; being moved to Stutthof in 1944 and forced to work in a shipbuilding firm; surviving a death march in 1945 with his brother and being liberated by Soviet forces; accepting a position as an interpreter for the Russian Army; his incarceration by the Russians for allegedly supporting the Nazis but being released when the charges were disproven; locating his pre-war girlfriend and marrying her; moving to Berlin, Germany with his wife and brother; and applying for a visa and immigrating to the United States on March 10, 1947.

    Oral history interview with Liny Pajgin Yollick

    Oral history interview with Liny Pajgin Yollick

    Oral History

    Liny Pajgin Yollick, born in 1924 in Hague, Netherlands, describes growing up in a wealthy family; the German occupation of the Netherlands in May 1940; her mother’s plans to escape after her father died; spending six months with her mother and sister trying to escape through southern France by pretending to be Protestant, obtaining visas to travel through Spain and Portugal, and going on one of the last trains to cross into Spain after the Germans took over southern France; boarding a Portuguese ship bound for Dutch Guiana and being placed into a refugee camp; the exiled Dutch government’s arrangement for her to finish her education; and immigrating to the United States, where she worked for some time in the Dutch embassy in Washington, DC before settling in Texas.

    Oral history interview with Fred Bachner

    Oral history interview with Fred Bachner

    Oral History

    Fred Bachner was born on September 28, 1925 in Berlin, Germany and describes his family; his brother’s and father’s deportation to the Polish border after Kristallnacht; moving to Poland in 1939 to join the rest of his family; his brother being taken to a work camp in Poland in 1940; his deportation to Markstädt, a sub-camp of Gross-Rosen, and then to Groeditz and Faulbrueck before he was sent to Auschwitz; loading and unloading coal and cement for I.G. Farben, a German industrial company; going on a death march out of Auschwitz to a camp near Dachau, where he found his brother; being placed on another train that was ambushed by British fighter planes; jumping off the train with his brother and hiding in the surrounding area until they located the American soldiers; staying at the Feldafing displaced persons camp after the war; reuniting with his father and immigrating to the United States with his father and brother on January 3, 1947; and being drafted into the United States Army during the Korean War.

    Oral history interview with Murray Pantirer

    Oral history interview with Murray Pantirer

    Oral History

    Murray Pantirer was born on June 15, 1925 in Kraków, Poland and discusses his childhood; the German occupation of Kraków in 1939; separating from his family on several occasions in an attempt to find food and other necessities; finally being confined to the Kraków ghetto; his and his brother’s deportation to Płaszów, Poland to do forced labor; his transport to Auschwitz in May 1944, then to Gross-Rosen, and finally to Brünnlitz, a sub-camp of Gross-Rosen, to work for German industrialist Oskar Schindler; his liberation on May 10, 1945 and discovering that he was only one of nine family members to survive; returning to Poland after liberation but deciding to leave because of the lingering presence of antisemitism; moving to a displaced persons camp in Linz, Austria, where he met and married his wife; arranging to immigrate to America through the American consul in Salzburg, Austria; and immigrating to the United States on the S.S. Marine Fletcher in January 1949.

    Oral history interview with Barbara Marton Farkas

    Oral history interview with Barbara Marton Farkas

    Oral History

    Barbara Marton Farkas, born on May 4, 1920 in Beliu, Romania, describes her family and childhood; living in Beliu until 1937, when her family sold their house and store and moved to Oradea, Romania; being refused entrance into the university in 1940 because of the anti-Jewish laws implemented by the Hungarian government, which then controlled the northern Transylvania area; training in a hospital laboratory and working there until the German invasion of Hungary in March 1944; leaving the hospital, which was occupied by the SS, and starting work at a photo company; first wearing the Star of David on April 1, 1944 and going into the Oradea ghetto in May 1944; her family’s deportation to Auschwitz, where she lost her parents; her transfer to Weisswasser, a sub-camp of Gross-Rosen in Germany, where she worked in a chemistry lab and then in the Cathode Workshop; staying there from October 1944 through February 1945; her transport through several camps after March 1945 to avoid the approaching Soviet army; ending up on the German-Danish border at Padberg, Germany; the Red Cross assisting the survivors with food and shelter; being taken to Malmö, Sweden the next day and then spending some time in a hospital in Landskrona, Sweden; returning to Romania to study in Cluj from 1946 to 1951; graduating as an industrial pharmacist; immigrating to Israel in 1961; and immigrating to the United States in 1968.

    Oral history interview with William Farkas

    Oral history interview with William Farkas

    Oral History

    William Farkas, born in 1916 in Arad, Romania, describes growing up as an only child in a middle class family; attending the Arad Jewish school and studying business administration after high school; joining the Romanian Army after school; not experiencing antisemitism until 1940 when he was expelled from the army because he was Jewish; the Iron Guard coming to power in September 1940; being ordered to report for deportation to labor camps in July 1941 and going to a work camp in Sighişoara, Romania, where he worked as a miner demolishing mountains for a new railway line; being sent home until 1942, when he was transported to Valea Homorod, Romania and then to Kinapist, Romania to do railway work; claiming he was an electrician in 1943 and going to a camp with three friends in Timişoara, Romania, where they worked as auto mechanics in a military garage for one year; his transport in 1944 to Doaga, a labor camp in Romania, where inmates built cement fortresses; hearing that Soviet soldiers were approaching Doaga and being liberated on August 25, 1944; returning home via Bucharest and reuniting with his parents in Arad; finding a wife and immigrating to Israel with her in 1954; and immigrating to the United States in 1961.

    Oral history interview with Sheila Perec Etons Bernard

    Oral history interview with Sheila Perec Etons Bernard

    Oral History

    Sheila Etons Bernard (née Sala Perec), born on February 18, 1936 in Chełm, Poland, describes her family and early childhood; her father’s deportation to a labor camp after the war began and never seeing him again; hiding in the shack of a Polish policeman for almost two years with her mother; her mother dying because of a blood clot in her leg; going to a children’s home in Germany for two years; immigrating to Palestine to live with one of her uncles; joining the military, where she met her husband; immigrating to the United States in 1963 because her husband had family in the US; and her thoughts on how the war has affected her life.

    Oral history interview with Frima L.

    Oral history interview with Frima L.

    Oral History

    Frima, born in 1936 in Volochys'k, Russia (now Ukraine), describes her family; trying to escape to White Russia with her family after the Nazi invasion but being forced back to live with some distant cousins; her father’s capture by the Germans to serve as an interpreter for them; her sister and mother being forced to work at labor camps during the days; entering the Volochys'k ghetto; getting caught by Germans and claiming that they were not Jewish, which resulted in them going to jail; escaping with her mother and sister to hide in the attic of a barn, where they were almost discovered but managed to escape; the intensifying pogroms against the Jews by Russian and Ukrainian collaborators; pretending to be Christian and going into hiding with an old family friend; eventually reuniting with her mother with the help of several generous Gentiles and staying with her until the end of the war; going into displaced persons camps in Bavaria; going to school in Germany for two and a half years and then moving to France; immigrating to the United States in the 1950s and meeting her husband there; and her considerations on how the war has affected her life.

    Oral history interview with Esther Terner Raab

    Oral history interview with Esther Terner Raab

    Oral History

    Esther Terner Raab, born on June 11, 1922 in Chelm, Poland, describes growing up as one of two children; the Soviet occupation of her town in 1939; the German invasion of Chelm in 1941 and her family being forced into a ghetto; moving to Siedliszcze, Poland and eventually moving into the ghetto in Siedliszcze; her transport to the labor camp at Staw Noakowski, Poland for a short time before she and her brother were sent to Sobibór in December 1942; arriving at Sobibór three days before Christmas in 1942 and being forced to work in a knitting factory in the camp, knitting woolen socks; witnessing the gassing of Jews at Camp III of the Sobibór compound; participating in the camp uprising of October 14, 1943 but getting wounded during the escape; fleeing to the countryside and getting sheltered by a former customer of her father; reuniting with her brother, who had escaped during a previous transfer; remaining hidden until 1944, when the region in which she hid was freed by the Soviet Red Army; following the Red Army to Berlin, Germany and settling there for a short time after the war; marrying a man in Berlin and then immigrating to the United States shortly after the end of the war; and serving as a witness at the trials of Nazi criminals in the 1965-66 trials in Hagen, Germany.

    Oral history interview with Guy Stern

    Oral history interview with Guy Stern

    Oral History

    Guy Stern, born on January 14, 1922 in Hildesheim, Germany, describes growing up in a Jewish family; attending a German school, where he had many non-Jewish friends; losing several of his friends after 1933 when they joined the Hitler Youth; his family’s decision to move to the United States after they began to experience increased levels of antisemitism; leaving Germany with a group of children in November 1937 and arriving in New York, NY; moving to St. Louis, Missouri to live with distant relatives; graduating high school in June 1939 and trying to help his family immigrate to the United States; discovering that his parents had perished in the Warsaw Ghetto in Poland; attempting to enlist in the US Army in 1941 but being turned away because of his German heritage; receiving a draft notice in 1942 and being trained in military intelligence because of his familiarity with the German language; training at Camp Ritchie in Maryland; working as an interrogator and uncovering the deeds of several war criminals; going to Buchenwald the day after it was liberated and seeing the horrible conditions there; returning to the United States after the war, attending Hofstra College, and then earning his Ph.D. from Columbia University in German Literature and Culture; and helping other survivors write about their Holocaust experiences.

    Oral history interview with Toby Stern

    Oral history interview with Toby Stern

    Oral History

    Toby Stern, born on July 15, 1920 in Vișeu de Mijloc, Romania, describes growing up as the youngest of six children; marrying when she was seventeen or eighteen; going into hiding with her family shortly after the war began; having one child and miscarrying another while in hiding; her deportation to Auschwitz with her mother and her three-year-old son; giving her child to her mother to carry, since both were guaranteed to be killed, which allowed her to survive; having to do forced labor making uniforms in the camp's tailor shop; going on a death march in early 1945 from Auschwitz to Ravensbrück and then to Malchow, where Russian forces liberated her; going to the New Bromberg displaced persons camp and then returning to Vișeu de Mijloc in search of her husband and family; finding all of her brothers but not her husband, who was rumored to have died in Russia; immigrating to Germany after the war and remarrying while there; and immigrating to the United States in 1950.

    Oral history interview with Ion Butnaru

    Oral history interview with Ion Butnaru

    Oral History

    Ion Butnaru, born in 1918 in Huși, Moldavia (Romania), describes his family; working for a small newspaper before the war until he was drafted into the Romanian Army in November, 1939; being transferred to the military zone in northern Moldavia in the spring of 1940; his expulsion from the army in August 1940 because he was Jewish; being ordered to return to his regiment to work with the battalions in the Carpathian Mountains on September 1, 1940; being sent back to Huși to clean streets in the summer of 1941; his deportation to a concentration camp in Tîrgu Jiu, Romania, where he remained for four months; returning to Huși, where he was placed in a local camp in the courtyard of the Jewish community and had to wear yellow badges; witnessing the Iron Guard Rebellion in January 1941, during which many Jews were killed; his father being falsely accused of being a communist and getting badly beaten; being forced to clear the streets of snow until the summer of 1942, when he was sent to Bolgrad, Ukraine and then to several other villages in Bessarabia in a forced labor battalion; getting moved to another camp near Bîrlad, Romania in 1943; the Romanian Army surrendering to Soviet forces in August 1944; and immigrating to the United States in 1976.

    Oral history interview with Jeanine Gutman Butnaru

    Oral history interview with Jeanine Gutman Butnaru

    Oral History

    Jeanine Gutman Butnaru, born on June 25, 1925 in Bacău, Romania, describes her childhood and family; moving to Bucharest, Romania in 1938; her involvement in the underground resistance movement in Bucharest; working as a volunteer in Jewish hospitals; witnessing the Iron Guard Rebellion of January 21-23, 1941, when Legionaries killed Jews and burned downed their houses and stores; the 1944 American bombing of the railroads that cut the Germans off from Ploiești, Romania, which was rich with oil; hiding in her family’s cellar during the heavy bombardments because Ploiești was near Bucharest; Soviet troops entering Romania at the end of the war; meeting her husband in the Writer's Union; and immigrating to the United States in 1976.

    Oral history interview with Cecilie Klein-Pollack

    Oral history interview with Cecilie Klein-Pollack

    Oral History

    Cecilie Klein-Pollack, born on April 13, 1925 in Yasinya, Ukraine, describes growing up as the youngest of six children in a Jewish family; the death of her father when she was nine years old; her expulsion from high school after the Hungarians annexed Ruthenia; being threatened with deportation and subsequently going into hiding in Budapest, Hungary after her mother and sister were briefly imprisoned there; fleeing to Horinc, Ukraine, where they stayed for a year until her brother was taken for forced labor; moving with her mother to Nyíregyháza, Hungary, where arrangements had been made for her to apprentice in a dental laboratory; traveling to Budapest when she heard that her oldest sister had been arrested and finding out that she had been sent to a labor camp in Bačka Topola, Yugoslavia; traveling to Bačka Topola to arrange for her sister’s release and then returning to Budapest, where she became engaged to her future husband Joe Klein; the German invasion of Budapest in March 1944 and joining up with her and Joe’s families in Chust, Ukraine; being forced into a ghetto and then transported to Auschwitz; arriving in Auschwitz and being sent to Birkenau with her sister; being sheltered by the Blockältester who liked her because she was a talented poet; her and her sister’s transport to Nuremberg and Holleischen; their liberation from Holleischen by Russian troops and returning to Czechoslovakia, where she reunited with her fiancé and married him in Budapest on August 21, 1945; and immigrating to the United States in 1948.

    Oral history interview with Fred Schwartz

    Oral history interview with Fred Schwartz

    Oral History

    Fred Schwartz, born on October 30, 1928 in Kotaj, Hungary, describes his childhood; his father’s deportation to a labor camp in 1940; taking over his father’s job delivering seltzer water with his brother; knowing very little of what was happening in Europe from 1940 to 1944; the German invasion of Hungary; the organization of Jews into their town synagogues as the Germans prepared them for deportation; his deportation to Birkenau with his father, mother, and brother; discovering later after the war that his mother had died in Bergen-Belsen; his transfer to a work camp in Wolfsberg where he had to dig tunnels through mountains; being forced on a death march as the Russian forces neared; arriving in Mauthausen where he was liberated by American forces; staying a displaced persons camp for two years until he relocated to Paris, France; waiting to receive an American visa; going to the United States without legal papers and almost being sent back; and reconciling with his past.

    Oral history interview with Abraham Malnik

    Oral history interview with Abraham Malnik

    Oral History

    Abraham Malnik, born on January 31, 1927 in Kaunas, Lithuania, describes his childhood and family; the Russian invasion of Lithuania in 1940 and losing most of his family’s belongings; the brutal treatment of Jews by Lithuanians; the establishment of a ghetto in Kaunas that held about thirty thousand people; the Lithuanians beheading the local rabbis; being saved during a selection because his father knew the chief of police; his father’s work in the ghetto fire department; being forced to do several jobs like make toys for German children and clean dirty clothes from the front; the Germans and Lithuanians intensifying their battle against the Jews after the loss of the battle at Stalingrad; being on the last transport from the ghetto to Dachau, where he had to help build a factory for Messerschmitt and pick up dead bodies; his transfers with his father to Flossenbürg and then another camp; getting a German officer in trouble because he attempted to sexually abuse him; his transfer to Theresienstadt, where he was liberated by Russian troops on May 8, 1945; immigrating to the United States without knowing anyone or speaking English; and settling in Washington, DC with his wife, who was a Belgian Holocaust survivor.

    Oral history interview with Lilly Appelbaum Malnik

    Oral history interview with Lilly Appelbaum Malnik

    Oral History

    Lilly Appelbaum Malnik, born in Belgium in 1928, describes her family and childhood; her father's move to the United States; waking up one morning in 1940 and discovering that the Germans had invaded; her sister who was taken into hiding by a farmer who later turned her in to the Germans because she would not have sexual relations with him; living with her aunt in the countryside after having her tonsils out; returning to find that her mother and brother had been deported; hiding her Jewish identity and doing odd jobs for the Germans; going into hiding with a Belgian girl with whom she had worked; being caught and deported on the second-to-last transport before the liberation of Belgium; arriving in Birkenau and receiving her identification number and work assignment to the kitchens in Auschwitz; a death march to Bergen-Belsen; the arrival of Allied soldiers at Bergen-Belsen; being taken away by the Red Cross to recover from typhus and physical injuries; returning to Belgium and reuniting with her aunt; and immigrating to United States to be with her father.

    Oral history interview with Masha Loen

    Oral history interview with Masha Loen

    Oral History

    Masha Loen, born in July 1930 in Kaunas, Lithuania, describes growing up in a religious family with three sisters; her father hiding her family and other Kaunas Jews under the wooden floor planks in his home; being separated from her family in 1941 and taken to the Stutthof concentration camp in Poland; performing forced labor in Stutthof until 1945, when she was taken on a death march as Russian troops approached the camp; making it to a Russian hospital after the German soldiers abandoned the death march; traveling to Łódź, where she found her father who had been liberated from Dachau; taking a transport to Austria; and immigrating to New Orleans, LA in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Madeline Deutsch

    Oral history interview with Madeline Deutsch

    Oral History

    Madeline Deutsch, born on April 29, 1930 in Berehove, Czechoslovakia (now in Ukraine), describes her childhood; Hungary taking over her town on November 9, 1938; living under the Hungarians until March 1944 when the Germans invaded; living in a ghetto for two weeks until her transport to Auschwitz, where she and her mother stayed in for one week; being moved near Wrocław, Poland to work at an ammunition factory; her and her mother’s liberation by Russian soldiers on May 8, 1945; discovering that both her father and brother had died; staying with her mother in a displaced persons camp for four years until March 9, 1949 when the two immigrated to the United States; and marrying and having two sons in America.

    Oral history interview with Amalie Petranker Salsitz

    Oral history interview with Amalie Petranker Salsitz

    Oral History

    Amalie Petranker Salsitz, born in 1922 in Munich, Germany, describes growing up in a Zionist family; moving to Stanislav, Poland (now Ivano-Frankivs'k, Ukraine) when she was a young child; the Russian occupation of Poland in 1939 and the loss of her father’s business; seeing her sister move to Palestine with her new husband; her family’s arrest by the Gestapo in October 1941; moving into the ghetto until her father was deported in 1942; escaping to Kraków, Poland, where she passed as Aryan; working as a chambermaid and finally obtaining employment at a construction firm in Kraków, where she remained until January 1945; traveling to Munich and Palestine after the war; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with Norman Salsitz

    Oral history interview with Norman Salsitz

    Oral History

    Norman Salsitz, born in 1920 in Kolbuszowa, Poland, describes growing up in a Zionist Hasidic family; making a failed attempt to immigrate to Palestine in 1938; unsuccessfully trying to join the Polish Army in September 1939; the occupation and destruction of his town; escaping to Russian-occupied Poland for a short period until he returned to Kolbuszowa; going into the Lipie labor camp in 1940; running away from the camp; working for the Germans, building garages for the Wehrmacht; his deportation to the Pustków concentration camp in late 1940; being beaten; escaping from Pustków and moving to the Czechowice ghetto; escaping from the ghetto in November 1942 and helping to establish a partisan unit in the forest near Kolbuszowa; obtaining false documentation with which he joined the Armia Krajowa; fleeing to Germany after the war; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with Frederic Bernard

    Oral history interview with Frederic Bernard

    Oral History

    Frederic Bernard, born on August 7, 1912 in Chernivtsi, Romania (Chernivtsi, Ukraine), describes his family; studying medicine at Karls University in Prague, Czechoslovakia; attempting to enter Hungary in 1941 but being turned away by the Hungarian gendarmerie and placed in a ghetto in Oleyëvo-Korolëvka, Ukraine with over 1,500 Jewish people; hiding during an Aktion in 1942 that exterminated most of the ghetto and then later escaping with his wife Gusti; finding a hiding place with a Polish man in a barn in the woods; the Polish man encouraging him to join a Polish resistance group; finding a new hiding place with Gusti in 1943 and joining a Russian resistance group; becoming a courier for the resistance because of his Romanian language ability; joining the Polish Army, where he practiced as a doctor; and immigrating to the United States in 1950.

    Oral history interview with Isaac Bitton

    Oral history interview with Isaac Bitton

    Oral History

    Isaac Bitton, born on March 31, 1926 in Lisbon, Portugal, describes his family and childhood; the small Lisbon Jewish community in which he grew up that hosted thousands of Jewish refugees before and during the war; his family’s work running a soup kitchen to help the Jewish refugees; immigrating to Palestine with his brother aboard the ship Nisassa; being forced into an internment camp when he arrived in Haifa; joining the Palestine Police Railroad Division and then the Jewish Brigade; spending some time in Antwerp, Belgium for the Jewish Brigade but soon returning to Palestine to work for the British military; participating in a movement to encourage the illegal entry of European refugees into Palestine; working with the underground forces of the Haganah, a movement dedicated to preparing for Israeli independence; and his immigration to the United States in 1959.

    Oral history interview with Max Haber

    Oral history interview with Max Haber

    Oral History

    Max Haber, born on December 31, 1904 in Essen, Germany, describes his family; attending an Orthodox Jewish school in Germany; moving to Hamburg, Germany and working as a businessman there until 1933, when he moved to Kolomyia, Poland to live with his brother and sister; moving to Katowice, Poland, where he was able to find work; joining the Revisionist party in 1939 and trying to immigrate to Palestine on an illegal transport through Romania; the British Ambassador to Romania telling the Romanians to withdraw his visa since the British were restricting Jewish immigration to Palestine; returning to Kolomyia and staying there until the Soviets invaded in 1939; trying to escape to Romania with his brother-in-law but getting caught and imprisoned; being moved to Kiev, Ukraine in March 1940; receiving a five-year prison sentence and getting transported to Yartsevo, Russia; his transfer to the Mostowits labor camp in Russia, where he was forced to cut trees; his liberation in March 1944 and taking a train to Kotel’nich, Russia with other prisoners; staying with several Russian Jewish families until he found a Ukrainian family who housed him for a short time in exchange for German lessons; traveling to the English zone in Germany; and reuniting with his brother in 1951 in Israel.

    Oral history interview with William P. Levine

    Oral history interview with William P. Levine

    Oral History

    Major General William P. Levine, born in Duluth, Minnesota on July 1, 1915, describes growing up as the oldest of four brothers; his draft into the United States Army in 1942 and completing Officer Training School in 1943; entering the Intelligence Unit as an Artillery Officer in 1944; being sent to England and later traveling with a unit that began in the Netherlands and worked its way south towards Dachau; moving into Dachau on April 29, 1945 and helping to give out food and medical care to the former prisoners at Dachau; and returning to the United States in 1946.

    Oral history interview with Leo Schneiderman

    Oral history interview with Leo Schneiderman

    Oral History

    Leo Schneiderman, born on August 18, 1921 in Łódź, Poland, describes his family and childhood; the large Jewish population that had comfortably developed within Łódź before Hitler came to power; Poland preparing for war by drafting young men into the army and by digging trenches; the German invasion and fall of the Polish Army in September 1939; being tricked by the German government to head towards Warsaw with his younger brother and father; returning to Łódź and being forced into the ghetto with his whole family; the closing of the Łódź ghetto in 1940 and the realization that the community needed to organize its own services and methods of self-support; each of his family members taking a job in the ghetto, including his work as a tailor; illegally teaching Yiddish in the ghetto; not understanding why there had to be deportations from the ghetto without realizing the severity of the camps; his deportation to Auschwitz in August 1944; his transport to Kaltwasser, a labor camp in Silesia, to do construction work for a short period until he was transferred to Lärche and then to Wolfsberg, where he worked in a hospital; being forced onto an open cattle car for a deportation and being thrown food while passing through Stará Paka, Czechoslovakia; his liberation by Allied Forces; and speaking for the prosecution against Herr Krison in a 1978 trial in Bochum, West Germany.

    Oral history interview with Adam Starkopf and Pela Starkopf

    Oral history interview with Adam Starkopf and Pela Starkopf

    Oral History

    Adam Starkopf and Pela Starkopf, both born in 1914 in Warsaw, Poland, describe their childhoods and families; Pela’s decision to study at a Warsaw law school before the war; getting married in 1936 and having a daughter in 1941; entering the Warsaw ghetto in 1940; escaping from the ghetto in 1942 by drugging their daughter, so she seemed to be dead; pretending to go to the Jewish cemetery outside of the ghetto to bury their daughter but never returning; their daughter getting tuberculosis and her six week treatment in a hospital; being helped by non-Jews; hiding on the Aryan side as Catholics; their daughter’s discovery that she was Jewish after the war; immigrating to the United States in 1947 on a United States Navy transport; Adam taking various jobs until he opened sporting goods factory; and getting involved in the Penny Project, which began in 1989.

    Oral history interview with Carla Heijmans Lessing

    Oral history interview with Carla Heijmans Lessing

    Oral History

    Carla Heijmans Lessing, born in 1929 in Rotterdam, Netherlands, describes her family and childhood; the German invasion of the Netherlands in 1940 and experiencing harsh antisemitic measures; going into hiding with her mother and brother in August 1942 with the assistance of a Catholic priest who helped Jews find hiding places; leaving their first hiding place after three months but, with the priest’s help, finding a new shelter in Delft, in which they hid for thirty months; and her liberation in May 1945.

    Oral history interview with Edward Lessing

    Oral history interview with Edward Lessing

    Oral History

    Edward Lessing, born in the Hague, Netherlands on May 8, 1926, describes moving to the United States in 1929; returning to Delft, Netherlands in 1932 because of the economic depression in the US; entering trade school in 1942 to become a tool maker but having to leave because Jews could no longer attend public school after the German invasion; splitting up from his family after the invasion in October 1942 and finding a place to hide with a farmer, who employed him as a farm hand; relocating to hide in a convent in the Hague with his mother; the German raid of the convent in December 1943, during which he escaped, but his mother was taken to Bergen-Belsen; reuniting with his father and brothers in their hiding place in an abandoned cottage; remaining in this cottage through May 1945 when they returned to Delft; his mother’s liberation from Bergen-Belsen in late 1945; and immigrating with his family to the United States in 1946.

    Oral history interview with Werner Goldsmith

    Oral history interview with Werner Goldsmith

    Oral History

    Werner Goldsmith, born in Erfurt, Germany on November 13, 1928, describes his family; the expulsion of Jewish children from German schools in 1938; the death of his father in 1938 and moving with his mother to Berlin, Germany; his mother placing him in the Auerbach Orphanage while she lived with another Jewish woman in West Berlin; his mother arranging for him to be placed in a transport to France while she traveled to England; living in the home of a French count until the invasion of France in 1940; the count being taken prisoner in Germany in 1940 and going into the care of the Oeuvre de Secours aux Enfants; unsuccessfully attempting to flee to southern France and getting separated from the other children when he was placed in the Rothschild orphanage, where he remained for nine months; moving to Marseilles, France in the spring of 1941; receiving an emergency visa in September 1941 to immigrate to the United States because he had relatives there; getting on a transport from Marseilles to Portugal and then embarking on a Portuguese freighter and sailing to the United States; and living in Jewish foster homes until he reunited with his mother in 1946.

    Oral history interview with Beatrice Pappenheimer

    Oral history interview with Beatrice Pappenheimer

    Oral History

    Beatrice Pappenheimer, born in October 1932 in Lauterbach, Germany, describes her family and childhood; her parents having to register with the local police; moving to Karlsruhe, Germany after her father had to give up his business in 1936; starting school in Karlsruhe but experiencing much antisemitism; being forced to leave school in November 1938 because of a law forbidding Jews from public schools; the Gestapo forcing her and her family from their house and onto a train in 1939; arriving in the Gurs camp and contracting dysentery; her transfer to the Rivesaltes camp; her mother placing her on a truck run by the Oeuvre de Secours des Enfants and moving into homes in France; reuniting with her sister, who had gone through terrible times in the camps; the bombing of France that picked up in 1943; receiving letters from her grandmother in Palestine, her aunts in New York City, NY, and her uncle and aunt in London, England; arriving in London to be with her uncle and aunt; immigrating to New York City in October 1947 to live with her aunts and attend high school; and her thoughts on her wartime experiences.

    Oral history interview with John Komski

    Oral history interview with John Komski

    Oral History

    John Komski, born in 1915 in Galicia, Poland, describes growing up in a Gentile family; having some Jewish friends at the Academy of Arts in Kraków, where he graduated from in 1939; leaving Kraków when the Germans invaded but returning to join the resistance; escaping to Czechoslovakia, where he was caught by Slovaks who turned him in to the Gestapo; being rounded up in 1940 with 756 other Poles and deported to Auschwitz, where he worked in the architect's office; helping to create the museum in Auschwitz in 1941, collecting items of interest from the incoming inmates; escaping from Auschwitz to a small village, where he received false documents from the underground and boarded a train to Kraków; getting captured in Kraków and sent to prison; his transport to Auschwitz-Birkenau and then to Buchenwald, where he worked as a kitchen chef; his deportation to Gross-Rosen, where he worked in the labor relations office; being transported to Hersbruck towards the end of the war and then forced on a death march to Dachau, where he was liberated; and his immigration to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Curtis Whiteway

    Oral history interview with Curtis Whiteway

    Oral History

    Curtis Whiteway, born in Newburyport, MA on November 3, 1925, discusses his draft into the United States Army in December 1943; his basic training in Fort Knox, KY and intensive training with Rangers; transferring to Camp Maxie, TX, where he joined the 99th Division and immediately went to England; crossing into France with his division and participating in several skirmishes with the Germans; fighting the Third Panzer Division, which helped to push American forces further into Germany through the Siegfried Line; fighting near Cologne, Germany and encountering several concentration camps; helping to liberate the few surviving prisoners at Ohrdruf; going south into combat after the arrival of the Red Cross; reaching Dachau 3-B and then liberating the Moosburg prison camp (Stalag VII A) in Germany, which had about 30,000 prisoners, including some American prisoners of war; going to the Landshut sub-camp of Dachau to meet up with English and Canadian troops; and his assignment after the war to work temporarily in Cherbourg, France.

    Oral history interview with Lore Baer

    Oral history interview with Lore Baer

    Oral History

    Lore Baer, born August 26, 1938 in Amsterdam, Netherlands, discusses her childhood in Amsterdam; how her family moved from Germany to the Netherlands in 1933; developing a close relationship with her maternal grandfather, who was arrested by the Gestapo and taken to Bergen-Belsen, where he perished; her family's relationship with Elsa and Sam Izaaks, members of the underground resistance; her time in hiding with the Schouten family and becoming friends with Cornelia Schouten; her memories of living as a Catholic in order to conceal her identity as a Jew; hiding in various places on the Schouten family farm in order to avoid the Germans; her difficult separation from the Schouten family at the end of the war and her readjustment to life in Amsterdam; immigrating to the United States with her parents and settling in the Bronx, New York; and returning to the Netherlands to visit with members of the Schouten family several years after moving to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Erich Kulka

    Oral history interview with Erich Kulka

    Oral History

    Erich Kulka (né Erich Schön), born on February 18, 1911 in Vsetín, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), describes his childhood and family; being raised as a conservative Jew; attending a trade school, where he studied forestry and then worked in the family lumber business; smuggling people through the woods after the German annexation of Austria; being caught, arrested, and tortured by the Gestapo in June 1939; being released from prison in August 1939 and resuming work with the underground; his second arrest in 1940, when he was taken to Dachau as a political prisoner and then transferred to Auschwitz, where he was assigned to a work detail with a group of five in the Birkenau camp; assisting in resistance activities in Auschwitz; going on a death march as the Soviets approached and then put on a train from which he escaped; fleeing from Czechoslovakia during the Prague Spring in 1968; living in Vienna, Austria for three months; and how all his family now lives in Israel.

    Oral history interview with Cornelia Schouten

    Oral history interview with Cornelia Schouten

    Oral History

    Cornelia Schouten, born on January 21, 1920 in Huizen, Netherlands, describes growing up as one of five children of a Christian farming family in Oosterblokker, Netherlands; one of her brothers serve in the Dutch Army and fight against the Nazis in 1940; the arrest of her father and uncle during the German occupation of the Netherlands because they were striking in protest of the occupation; her family’s decision to harbor those who resisted the Nazis, including members of the resistance and men who were drafted for forced labor; sheltering the young Jewish girl, Lore Baer, for over two years; Lore’s parents emerging from hiding after the war and reclaiming their daughter; reuniting with Lore several times after the war; and eventually immigrating to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Drexel Sprecher

    Oral history interview with Drexel Sprecher

    Oral History

    Drexel Sprecher, born on March 25, 1913 in Independence, WI, describes his family; his education at the University of Wisconsin, the London School of Economics, and at the Harvard School of Law; receiving a position on the Labor Board in 1938; his enlistment in the United States Army after the US declared war on Germany; being sent to London, England, where he was assigned to the Inspector General's office; later serving as a prosecutor of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg Trials; and prosecuting Baldur von Schirach, the leader of the Hitler Youth.

    Oral history interview with Bela Blau

    Oral history interview with Bela Blau

    Oral History

    Bela Blau, born in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia) in 1910, describes his family; getting married in 1930 and moving to Zilina, Slovakia; serving in the army for eighteen months and then working as a salesman representing a photo company; having a son in 1937; being dismissed from his job in 1938 because of his Jewish background; being arrested by two Hlinka Guards one day after Yom Kippur in 1942; his and his family’s deportation to Auschwitz, where he was placed in Block 10 and worked on building a bridge above the River Sota; doing writing jobs for an illiterate German Kapo because he spoke German; being assigned to the Kommando Kanada until May 1943 when he became a scribe and met his future second wife Magda; going on a death march in January 1945 from Auschwitz-Birkenau to Mauthausen, where he spent one month until he was transferred to Gusen, where he worked as an engineer fixing petrol tanks, gas tanks, and the wings of Messerschmitt planes; his transfer to Gunskirchen on May 1; and United States forces liberating him on May 7, 1945 in Gunskirchen.

    Oral history interview with Magda Blau

    Oral history interview with Magda Blau

    Oral History

    Magda Blau, born on August 19, 1916 in Michalovce, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia), describes growing up in a Jewish family; becoming a kindergarten teacher; the German invasion and her deportation to Auschwitz, where she worked scrubbing floors for three months until she became an assistant to the block supervisor; being put in charge of the barrack for medical experiments in the autumn of 1942 and becoming the protégé of Dr. Eduard Wirths, the garrison physician; later working in an office and becoming the concentration camp commander of the camp for Hungarian Jews; getting a job counting potatoes in a kitchen and then a job as a concentration camp supervisor in a fabric production facility; going on a death march on January 18, 1945 to Malchow, where they were liberated by the Soviet Army; settling in Prague, Czech Republic for a short time and then immigrating to Israel; and finally immigrating to Australia in 1965.

    Oral history interview with Barbara Ledermann Rodbell

    Oral history interview with Barbara Ledermann Rodbell

    Oral History

    Barbara Lederman Rodbell, born in 1925 in Berlin, Germany, describes her childhood; moving to Amsterdam, Netherlands in 1933 with her family; becoming friends with Anne Frank and her family; the German invasion of the Netherlands in 1940; her boyfriend getting her false papers through his underground contacts; the deportation of her mother, sister, and father to Westerbork and then to Auschwitz; working for the resistance and surviving using her false papers; helping other Jews find hiding places; joining a ballet company for two years after the war; and immigrating to the United States in November 1947.

    Oral history interview with Jerry Slivka

    Oral history interview with Jerry Slivka

    Oral History

    Jerry Slivka, born on July 11, 1915 in Western Ukraine, describes his memories of the Soviet takeover of Russia; moving to the neighboring town of Povorsk, Ukraine with his family; participating with the Zionist movement and joining a kibbutz; moving to Łódź, where he worked as a manager of a village store from 1939 to 1941; entering the Polish Army in 1939 but settling in Soviet-held territory after the takeover of Poland; joining the reserves of the Soviet Army; escaping a German attack and seeking refuge at Soviet military headquarters; being sent to a labor camp in Stalingrad (Volgograd), Russia and then to the railroads east of the Volga because the Soviets were suspicious of him; working in a coal mine near Moscow, Russia for one-and-a-half years before he was freed; his interment in Italy until he could return to Łódź in 1946; and immigrating to the United States in 1948.

    Oral history interview with Rochelle Blackman Slivka

    Oral history interview with Rochelle Blackman Slivka

    Oral History

    Rochelle Blackman Slivka, born in 1922 in Vilnius, Lithuania, describes growing up in a Jewish family; the German occupation of Vilnius in June 1941 and moving into the ghetto with her family in October; her mother’s death in the ghetto; the liquidation of the ghetto in 1943 and being transported to the Kaiserwald concentration camp in Latvia and later to Stutthof; her father’s murder in an Estonian prison camp because he had served as a Jewish council member; her experiences in the camps until she had to go on a death march, during which the Soviet Army liberated her; beginning to make her way back to Vilnius with her sister but instead going to West Germany; separating from her sister while they both awaited permission to go to the United States; learning nursing during her stay at a German displaced persons camp; immigrating to the United States and arriving in Massachusetts on May 18, 1949; working as a nurse’s aide in an American hospital; and meeting and marrying a Holocaust survivor in the United States in 1952.

    Oral history interview with Francis Akos

    Oral history interview with Francis Akos

    Oral History

    Francis Akos, born on March 30, 1922 in Budapest, Hungary, describes his childhood; attending a music academy, from which he graduated in 1941; becoming the concertmaster for the Budapest Jewish Community Cultural Center orchestra; being drafted for forced labor into the Hungarian Army in 1943; getting captured with other Jews in Budapest while on leave from the army to get fresh clothes; being sent by train to Neuengamme on November 4, 1944; playing violin in the camp; his evacuation from Neuengamme on May 3, 1945 and being transported by the ship Cap Arcona, a passenger liner that was evacuating refugees from West Prussia; the British mistakenly attacking the Cap Arcona and three other prisoner ships, which resulted in eight thousand deaths; returning to Budapest after the war; and immigrating to the United States in 1954.

    Oral history interview with Beno Helmer

    Oral history interview with Beno Helmer

    Oral History

    Beno Helmer, born in 1923 in Teplice, Czechoslovakia, describes his childhood and family; using his foreign language skills to land small movie roles before the war; attempting to settle in Hungary with his family before the war; his family’s deportation to Łódź in 1939 because they did not have immigration papers; arriving in the Łódź ghetto and staying there until he had to begin doing forced labor outside the ghetto in 1942; securing a job posing as a non-Jewish German and collecting information for the underground and becoming an expert at derailing trains; returning to the ghetto when his father became sick and remaining with his family until they were deported to Auschwitz after the liquidation of the Łódź ghetto; his deportations to Gross-Rosen, Krupp Bertha-Werk at Laskowitz-Meleschwitz, Buchenwald, and Ludwigslust; his liberation by American soldiers while in a Russian prisoner-of-war camp; attempting to get back to Poland and on the way joining a Polish forced labor group that was later incorporated into the Russian Army; spending time hunting for Nazi war criminals after the war; and living in Europe for several years until he immigrated to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Jerry von Halle

    Oral history interview with Jerry von Halle

    Oral History

    Jerry von Halle, born on December 2, 1922 in Hamburg, Germany, describes his family and childhood; learning the Hitler salute in school and having to fly the Nazi flag over his house on holidays; moving to Amsterdam, Netherlands with his family in 1933 to get away from the Nazi party in Germany; the German invasion of the Netherlands; the Gestapo arresting and sending him to prison; being sent to Mauthausen with his brother and other boys but returning because he claimed to have tuberculosis; learning to be a shoemaker to avoid deportation; hiding in a house in the countryside with his family but returning to Amsterdam with his mother; going into hiding with his mother in the small apartment that belonged to one of his former teachers; his hider being caught and arrested four weeks before the end of the war and having to find a new place to hide; his liberation by Canadian troops; being arrested after the war with his mother because of their German passports but shortly being released when the authorities realized through what they had been; and immigrating to the United States in 1945.

    Oral history interview with Fritzie Weiss Fritzshall

    Oral history interview with Fritzie Weiss Fritzshall

    Oral History

    Fritzie Weiss Fritzshall, born in 1929 in Klyucharki, Czechoslovakia (Kliucharky, Ukraine), discusses her childhood; her father immigrating to the United States but being unable to arrange for her entire family to come over before the war began; no longer being able to attend school and experiencing increased tensions with her neighbors after the German annexation of Czechoslovakia; being forced to move into the ghetto with her family; being loaded onto a train after spending several weeks in the ghetto and arriving in Auschwitz two and a half days later; pretending that she was 15, so she would be old enough to work; her assignment to carry rocks between two places; being sent to the gas chambers during a selection but getting rescued just before she entered the gas chamber itself; working in an airplane factory with six hundred women; running into a forest with a friend and walking to a town that had been liberated by the Russian military; being given an apartment, food, clothing, and medical attention by the Russians; returning home to find her house destroyed; living in her grandmother’s house with other survivors and living off of the money her father sent her; learning that she had an uncle who had survived and sneaking across the border into non-communist Czechoslovakia to reunite with him; and immigrating to the United States in 1947 with her father.

    Oral history interview with Ralph Codikow

    Oral history interview with Ralph Codikow

    Oral History

    Ralph Codikow, born in 1930, in Kaunas, Lithuania, describes his family; the German occupation of Lithuania in 1941 and his brother shortly thereafter being shot at the Seventh Fort; his and his mother’s confinement to the Kaunas ghetto, where his mother saved them by pretending to be married to a male friend; his mother using her husband’s Lithuanian military service papers to forgo deportation to the Ninth Fort; being saved by his work in a ceramics factory when the children’s Aktions were decreasing the number of children in the ghetto; his and his mother’s deportation to Stutthof, where they were separated; his transfer to Landsberg, a sub-camp of Dachau in Germany, and then to Dachau and Auschwitz-Birkenau; contracting measles but being considered healthy enough to go on a forced march to Buchenwald, a concentration camp in Germany, in the winter; his liberation at Buchenwald in April 1945; moving to France after the war; and immigrating to the United States in 1948.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Borsos

    Oral history interview with Ruth Borsos

    Oral History

    Ruth Borsos, born in 1923 in Frankfurt, Germany, describes her family; moving to the Netherlands after Kristallnacht in 1938; her and her father obtaining permits to sail to the United States but not being able to do so when Germany invaded the Netherlands in May 1940; her deportation to Westerbork in 1943 and then to Bergen-Belsen in 1944; being interned with her father in a camp near the Swiss border when an exchange agreement with the Allies broke down; being chosen to be traded for German prisoners because of their foreign passports; their liberation from the internment camp by French forces on April 23, 1945; spending some time in a United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration camp after the war; returning to the Netherlands in 1947 and receiving a visa to immigrate to the United States; and marrying another Holocaust survivor, whom she met in Washington, DC.

    Oral history interview with Simone Marguerite Lipman

    Oral history interview with Simone Marguerite Lipman

    Oral History

    Simone Marguerite Lipman (née Weil), born on April 4, 1920 in Ringendorf, France, describes her family; participating in a Jewish scouting organization, Les Eclaireurs Israélites de France, with her brother; moving to Strasbourg, France, a city with a vibrant Jewish community; graduating from high school in 1938 and moving to southern France to care for her elderly grandmother; relocating to Blâmont, France because of fears of Nazi invasion; training in early childhood education and working at a private school in Paris, France for a few months until she returned to take care of her mother who was extremely ill; the German invasion of France in May 1940; packing up her family’s belongings and driving towards southern France; arriving in Périgeaux, France, where her family had to register as Jews; going to the Rivesaltes camp in France to work for the Organization for Children’s Rescue, for which she distributed food, cared for the children, and tried to find ways to get them out of the camp; helping to rescue hundreds of children with the Catholic Church after the Nazis began to round up children in late 1942; working to reopen many children’s homes after the war ended; receiving a scholarship from America’s National Council of Jewish Women for her work during the war; moving to the United States in 1946 to attend Tulane University, where she received a master’s degree in social work; returning to Europe, where she trained employees of children’s homes to deal with the special needs of young Holocaust survivors; and immigrating to the United States in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Shony Alex Braun

    Oral history interview with Shony Alex Braun

    Oral History

    Shony Alex Braun, born on July 14, 1930 in Transylvania, Romania (possibly Cristuru Secuiesc, Romania), describes his family and early childhood; learning to play the violin at age five; the occupation of his town by Hungarian forces in 1940 and by the Germans in 1944; being deported to Auschwitz in May 1944; his transfer into the Natzweiler (Struthof) camp system in France and then to Dachau, where American forces liberated him in April 1945; his immigration to the United States in 1950; and becoming a professional composer and violinist.

    Oral history interview with Doriane Kurz

    Oral history interview with Doriane Kurz

    Oral History

    Doriane Kurz, born in Vienna, Austria in March 1936, describes her family and early childhood; moving to Maastricht, Netherlands and then Amsterdam, Netherlands in 1939 for her father’s business; experiencing several Nazi air raids over Amsterdam; Dutch Jews losing their businesses in 1942; her parents being imprisoned for trying to escape from the country and then getting deported to Westerbork; her father’s transfer to Auschwitz on November 10, 1942 and never being heard from again; her mother’s return to Amsterdam to take care of her and her brother; going into hiding with two farmers in the countryside; her capture and deportation to Westerbork with her mother and brother at the end of 1943; their transfer to Bergen-Belsen; contracting typhus in March 1944; being liberated by English troops while on a train ride; going to a displaced persons camp in Maastricht in June 1945; her mother’s death in March 1945 due to cancer; and immigrating to the United States in July 1945 with her brother to live with her uncle.

    Oral history interview with David Lieberman

    Oral history interview with David Lieberman

    Oral History

    David Lieberman, born in Częstochowa, Poland on December 31, 1925, describes his family; living through pogroms as a young child; having to move into the town’s ghetto and perform forced labor after the German occupation; seeing many of his family members deported to camps; his deportation to Treblinka, where he escaped after eleven days by cutting a hole in the fence with wire cutters that he had stolen; running with two friends to the house of a nearby farmer who put the three onto a train headed back to Częstochowa; reuniting with one brother, his sister, and his mother upon his return; being taken to another concentration camp, where he worked in a munitions factory as a bullet maker; the camp’s liberation and traveling by train to Karlovy Vary, Czechoslovakia, where he entered a United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Agency camp; traveling to Italy with the intention of taking a boat to Palestine but being returned to Karlovy Vary by the Italian government; and soon immigrating to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Laura Margolis

    Oral history interview with Laura Margolis

    Oral History

    Laura Margolis, born in Constantinople, Turkey in 1903, describes her family; immigrating to the United States in 1908 and settling in Ohio; becoming a social worker for the Jewish Welfare Society of Cleveland after graduating from college; joining the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and going to Havana, Cuba, where she was in charge of sheltering and feeding Jewish refugees; her transfer to Shanghai, China in May 1941, where she aided over 8,000 Jewish refugees; her capture by Japanese forces after the bombing of Pearl Harbor in December 1941 and going into an internment camp; faking an illness to be transported to an American hospital, where she knew a doctor; the doctor lying about her health and refusing to release her from the hospital; returning to the United States as part of a prisoner of war exchange in 1944; being sent to Barcelona, Spain in 1945 by the JDC to aid Jewish refugees; helping to organize a parcel-sending program to former prisoners of concentration camps after their liberation; moving to Israel in 1953; and returning to the United States in 1983 to retire.

    Oral history interview with Paul Strassmann

    Oral history interview with Paul Strassmann

    Oral History

    Paul Strassman, born on January 24, 1929 in Trenčín, Czechoslovakia (now in Slovakia), discusses his father’s work as an army officer for Austria-Hungary in World War I; the antisemitism his family experienced in the 1930s, which led them to consider escaping the country; his father divesting his share of his business; getting baptized, so they could avoid deportation; going into hiding in late August 1944; his father’s brief emergence from hiding and getting caught by the Gestapo, who sent him to Sachsenhausen; joining the Jegorov Brigade, a partisan group, in September 1944 and remaining in it until April 1945; joining the Czech Army in April 1945 as a noncommissioned officer and going to his station in Bratislava, Slovakia until the end of the war; remaining in Czechoslovakia but leaving just before the Communists took power in 1948; living briefly in Paris, France and London, England before immigrating to the United States in October 1948; and discovering that he was the sole survivor of his family.

    Oral history interview with Ernest James

    Oral history interview with Ernest James

    Oral History

    Ernest James, born in 1920 in Ord, NE, describes his family; joining the California National Guard in 1940; holding the position of sergeant and being called into active service in 1941; being stationed along the coast of San Francisco, CA and then going on to serve as platoon leader and company commander of the 238th Engineer Combat Battalion in the later years of the war; his unit’s attachment to the 1st Army and the 7th Corps; landing in Europe, where they swept through France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany; reaching Nordhausen in April 1945 and finding workers from a V-2 missile and arms plant; ordering the German civilians to begin burying the large number of people who had already died; and assisting in the guarding of a nearby camp containing approximately 80,000-100,000 military prisoners of war.

    Oral history interview with Chaim Engel

    Oral history interview with Chaim Engel

    Oral History

    Chaim Engel, born in January 1916, describes growing up in Łódź, Poland; his experiences with feeling different as a Jew growing up; fighting in the Polish Army during the war and getting captured as a prisoner of war; being released and traveling to Lublin to work as a farmhand; his father’s and step-mother’s transport to Sobibór in June 1942; going to Izbica Lubelska with a friend to join a partisan unit; being caught and sent on a transport in September 1942 with about eight hundred people to Sobibór, where he worked sorting the clothes of people who had come into the camp; getting beaten for stealing pants on a couple of occasions; meeting his future wife Selma when they were both assigned to sort clothes; participating in the Sobibór uprising and escaping with Selma to a farm where they stayed until June 1944; his liberation by Russian troops and going to Parczew, Poland, where he and Selma had a child and started to re-organize their lives; moving to Holland, where they stayed until 1951 when they immigrated to Israel; and his and Selma’s immigration to the United States in 1957.

    Oral history interview with Selma Engel

    Oral history interview with Selma Engel

    Oral History

    Selma Engel (née Wynberg), born in Groningen, Netherlands in 1922, describes her family and childhood; moving to Zwolle, Netherlands when she was seven years old; her family’s ownership of a kosher hotel; her father dying of a heart attack in 1941; the German invasion of the Netherlands and the confiscation of her family’s hotel; moving with her mother into the home of another Jewish family; receiving help from a Catholic priest in 1942 to hide in a non-Jewish family’s home; never seeing her mother and brothers again; hiding in a nurse’s home in Utrecht, Netherlands for a few months until she moved into another family’s house, where the police soon discovered her; being sent to an Amsterdam prison for three months; her deportation in 1943 to the transit camp in Vught, Netherlands, from which she went to Westerbork, where she worked in the laundry room; her transfer to Sobibór, where she had to sort clothes and clean the woods and railroads; contracting typhus; meeting Chaim, her future husband, when they had to dance in front of the Germans; escaping with Chaim from Sobibór during the uprising and hiding in the woods for several weeks; staying with a farmer in exchange for money for nine months; the farmer taking her and Chaim to Chełm, Poland in 1944; their liberation in July 1944; immigrating to Israel in 1951; and immigrating to the United States in 1957.

    Oral history interview with Morris Engelson

    Oral history interview with Morris Engelson

    Oral History

    Morris Engelson, born in 1935 in Paberze, Lithuania, describes his family; his father’s work in the grain business; the Soviet invasion in 1939; the German invasion in 1941 and forcing the Jews of Paberze into a ghetto; dressing up as a peasant woman with his mother to escape the ghetto that was soon liquidated by the Einsatzgruppen in September 1941; moving around and hiding in different farms with his mother; being smuggled to the Lithuanian-Polish border and ending up in another ghetto; reuniting with his father in April 1943 and hiding in a barn and then a farmer’s attic; moving westward towards the end of the war and arriving in the American zone in Germany; going to a Berlin displaced persons camp and later to the Gobrasa displaced persons camp in Bavaria after the war; and immigrating to the United States after four years.

    Oral history interview with Lonia Mosak

    Oral history interview with Lonia Mosak

    Oral History

    Lonia Mosak, born on July 20, 1922 in Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki, Poland, describes her family; moving to Ciechanów, Poland when she was young; attending a separate Jewish school in Poland and serving in a Zionist youth group; completing her school education in 1936; becoming seriously ill with typhus after the German invasion of Poland in 1939 but recovering even though Jewish physicians could not use medicine to contain the epidemic; her internment in Neustadt, a labor camp in Germany; being split up from her family in 1942 and transported to Auschwitz, where she remained until January 18, 1945 doing forced labor; being forced on a death march to Gross-Rosen and then to Ravensbrück, where she was liberated by the Soviet Army on April 30, 1945; returning to Ciechanów after her liberation; residing for short periods in Łódź and Bialystok to await the return of her last brother from Russia; marrying in Austria after the war; immigrating to a Polish-Jewish neighborhood of Chicago, IL in 1946; and having two children and eventually bringing her brother to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Agnes Grossman Aranyi

    Oral history interview with Agnes Grossman Aranyi

    Oral History

    Agnes Grossman Aranyi, born on May 2, 1936 in Budapest, Hungary, describes her family and childhood; her father being drafted into forced labor camps from 1939 until 1942 when he was finally deported; attending Jewish school until 1942 when the war began in Hungary; the restrictions on Jewish life in Budapest; being warned by a friend to disappear because he knew that the round-ups were to begin soon; meeting a woman who worked for the underground and who took them to live as Christians in a Swedish house set up by Raoul Wallenberg; the Germans invading their home and forcing them into a ghetto; the Russians arriving to liberate the Budapest ghetto; living under Russian oppression until 1956, when she escaped to Austria with her fiancé during the Hungarian Revolution; and immigrating to North Carolina shortly thereafter.

    Oral history interview with David Bergman

    Oral history interview with David Bergman

    Oral History

    David Bergman, born on May 3, 1931 in Beckov, Czechoslovakia (present day Velykyĭ Bychkiv, Ukraine), describes his family and childhood; the German occupation of his town, previously annexed by Hungary, in 1944; his deportation to Auschwitz in late 1944; being transferred with his father to Płaszow, Gross-Rosen, and then Reichenbach an der Fils; being among three of 150 people in a cattle car who survived a transport to Dachau; being placed on a train to Innsbruck, Austria three days before the Americans arrived in Dachau; his liberation while on a death march from Innsbruck toward the front line of combat between United States and German troops; going into in an American hospital and rehabilitating; traveling to his old family home and finding it occupied by a Russian family; discovering that everyone in his family except him had perished; immigrating to the United States, where he settled in Cleveland, Ohio; and joining the American military to fight in the Korean War.

    Oral history interview with Lila Lam Nowakowska

    Oral history interview with Lila Lam Nowakowska

    Oral History

    Lila Lam Nawakowska, born on November 24, 1924 in Stanislawów, Poland (Stanislav, Ukraine), describes growing up in a large family; the invasion of Poland in 1939 and the Soviet occupation of Stanislav until June 1941, when the Soviets withdrew, and the Germans entered and constructed a ghetto; her father becoming the chairperson of the ghetto’s Judenrat because he was such an influential businessman in their community; remaining in the ghetto with her family until December 1942, when they were able to obtain falsified Aryan papers and escape on the eve of the ghetto's liquidation in January 1943; renting an apartment in Warsaw, Poland and remaining there until the Warsaw uprising, when she was transported to Mauthausen; briefly spending time doing forced labor in Steyr, a sub-camp of Mauthausen and in Znojmo, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); her liberation by Soviet soldiers in May 1945; and reuniting with her mother and future husband shortly after the end of the war.

    Oral history interview with Yaffa Rosenthal

    Oral history interview with Yaffa Rosenthal

    Oral History

    Yaffa Rosenthal, born in Solotvyno, Czechoslovakia (now Ukraine) on October 7, 1926, describes her family and childhood; her experiences with antisemitism as a child; the Ukrainians taking over her town in 1938 and learning in a different language in school; her father losing his job and having to work in mines and on a cattle farm to support his family; receiving a notice that her family would be taken away in the early summer of 1941; her deportation to Yasinya (IAsinia), Ukraine and then being marched toward Galicia, Poland; escaping from the Germans and going to live with her uncle in Oradea, Romania and then with her sister in Budapest, Hungary; having a somewhat normal life until the German occupation of Hungary in 1944; hiding in the Budapest ghetto until January 1945 when she was liberated by Russian troops; trying to survive after the war and receiving help from the Swedish Red Cross; reuniting with her sister in Debrecen, Hungary and then returning with her to Budapest; participating in the Budapest Zionist organization and immigrating to Israel in 1948; getting married to an American man in 1959; and immigrating to the United States to settle in New York, NY.

    Oral history interview with Eve Wagszul Rich

    Oral history interview with Eve Wagszul Rich

    Oral History

    Eve Wagszul Rich, born in Kovel', Ukraine, describes her family and childhood; the German invasion and having to move into the ghetto; the Germans bursting into her home one night and killing her father in front of her; immediately running away into the forest and going to nearby villages, where she met peasants who gave her some food; going into hiding with a group of Carmelite Nuns; the Germans discovering her and sending her to Majdanek; escaping with a friend during a transport and going to Bavaria to work on a farm; her liberation by American forces; and immigrating to New York to live with her grandmother’s sister.

    Oral history interview with Magda Mezei Lapedus

    Oral history interview with Magda Mezei Lapedus

    Oral History

    Magda Mezei Lapidus, born on July 18, 1923 in Budapest, Hungary, describes her family and childhood; attending the Commercial Academy of Budapest for two years; first realizing the danger posed by the Nazis when they invaded Austria in 1938; seeing several young Hungarian men shipped out to labor camps starting in 1941; her brother being taken away to a labor camp in 1943; the German invasion of Hungary on March 19, 1944; being forced into the Budapest ghetto and living in the Star of David House; her father returning to live with them in June 1944; being forced on a march with her father to the outskirts of Budapest, at which point she was separated from her father and never saw him again; hiding in a bush on her march and ripping her identifying star off and returning to Budapest to reunite with her mother and brother; going to the Spanish Legation near the ghetto and receiving a safety pass to move into a house protected from German invasion; remaining in the house until January 18, 1945, when the Russians liberated Budapest; and discovering the fate of her father.

    Oral history interview with Avraham Ronai

    Oral history interview with Avraham Ronai

    Oral History

    Avraham Ronai, born on September 14, 1932 in Budapest, Hungary, describes growing up in a religious family; attending a secular public school and a Jewish school at night in Budapest; not experiencing many difficulties under the pro-Nazi Hungarian regime; the German invasion of Budapest in March 1944 but not really suffering until the Nazis took full control over Hungary in October 1944; the Nazis rounding up Jews into ghettos and deporting them; seeking help at the Spanish Embassy in Budapest and receiving a space in a Spanish safe-house due to the efforts of Giorgio Perlasca; remaining in the safe-house until the Soviets liberated Budapest in 1945; and immigrating to Israel in 1949 because of the oppressive Hungarian Communist regime.

    Oral history interview with Eva Konigsberg Lang

    Oral history interview with Eva Konigsberg Lang

    Oral History

    Eva Konigsberg Lang, born on April 1925 in Budapest, Hungary, describes her childhood and family; the Jewish community losing several of its rights when the war began; her relatives arriving from Czechoslovakia to live with her; being forbidden to attend school after March 1944; receiving a protective pass to get food; hearing that the wife of any man in forced labor would not be deported and getting married in 1944; hiding in a Spanish protective house on St. Paul Street and getting food supplies provided by the Jewish Council; the German occupation of Budapest; forging a telegram to prove that they were under Spanish protection and to save themselves from the Arrow Cross; and reflecting on how certain Spanish diplomats saved her life during the war.

    Oral history interview with Cornelius Loen

    Oral history interview with Cornelius Loen

    Oral History

    Cornelius Loen, born in Novi Sad, Yugoslavia (now Serbia) on May 2, 1922, describes growing up with a Jewish father and Gentile mother; the German invasion of his town on January 23, 1942 and German troops killing two of his uncles; escaping with his family to Budapest, Hungary, where they lived for ten months; his deportation to a forced labor camp in Hungary, where he remained until 1944; escaping to a nearby barn, where he hid for three days, during the liquidation of the camp; Russian troops liberating him while he hid in this barn; walking to a nearby displaced persons camp, where he met his future wife Masha; taking a Russian transport to Budapest and reuniting with his parents; discovering that his father had survived a concentration camp and his mother had helped to hide and save many Jewish people after her family was taken away; and immigrating to Los Angeles, CA in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Thomas Blatt

    Oral history interview with Thomas Blatt

    Oral History

    Thomas Blatt, born in 1927 in Izbica Lubelska, Poland, describes growing up in an Orthodox family; the establishment of a ghetto run by the Germans after the war began in September 1939; working in a garage, which protected him from early ghetto roundups; trying to escape to Hungary with false papers in 1942 but getting caught; his and his family’s deportation to Sobibór, where his family was gassed immediately; the Germans choosing him as a laborer because of his mechanical skills; participating in and escaping during the Sobibór uprising on October 14, 1943 by escaping through the wire fences and avoiding the land mines; going into hiding with a friend on several farms; hiding in a stable and then in an abandoned brick factory; working as a courier for the Polish underground; and immigrating to the United States in 1959.

    Oral history interview with Anita Magnus Frank

    Oral history interview with Anita Magnus Frank

    Oral History

    Anita Magnus Frank, born on January 29, 1936 in Emmen, Netherlands, describes her family; her move to Breda, Netherlands, where her family was living when the war broke out; the German invasion of 1940 and being told to leave because the Germans were going to bomb the town; walking thirty kilometers to a farm, where they stayed for five days; returning to Breda and experiencing increased persecution; obtaining false passports and assuming Dutch names to shield their Jewish identities in 1942 (Verified from other sources, the name of the individual who assisted Anita and her family was Govardus Pinxteren, who was later honored as Righteous Among the Nations); going into hiding first in a non-Jewish neighbor's home and then in a Quaker family’s home in Bilthoven, Netherlands; living as “normal” Dutch schoolchildren except having to hide their Jewish identities and constantly being in fear; leaving their hiding place in August 1944 because the Quaker family was too scared to keep them; returning to Limburg with her parents; the liberation of Limburg in September 1944; returning to Breda in April 1945 and living in an uninhabitable, bombed house for six months until they could move into a bigger and better house in the same town; and immigrating to the United States on December 7, 1952 because antisemitism was still a problem after the war.

    Oral history interview with Guta Blass Weintraub

    Oral history interview with Guta Blass Weintraub

    Oral History

    Guta Blass Weintraub, born on January 22, 1924 in Łódź, Poland, describes her childhood and family; her experiences with antisemitism in her youth; attending a private, Jewish, all-girls high school until the German invasion in September 1939; moving from Łódź to Wierzbnik-Starachowice in December 1939 because of fears about what the Germans had planned; the formation of a ghetto and having to share a home with at least one other family; meeting her future husband when he came to her home in the ghetto asking for her father to make him a suit with special pockets; being rounded up in the ghetto’s marketplace and sent to labor camps; managing to smuggle out some pictures with her as she, her mother, and her father were taken to a woodworking camp; surviving several shootings and experiencing starvation; her deportation to Auschwitz in 1942 and staying there until 1944, when she was transferred to Ravensbrück; her liberation by the Swedish Red Cross; and traveling to Sweden to recover.

    Oral history interview with Henry Schmelzer

    Oral history interview with Henry Schmelzer

    Oral History

    Henry Schmelzer, born in March 1924 in Vienna, Austria, describes growing up as the youngest of four children in a middle-class family; graduating from a Jewish high school in 1938 shortly before it closed; his brothers fleeing, while he and the rest of his family endured Nazi raids on their home until they were evicted; his father losing his business and having severe depression; escaping to England on December 18, 1938 and finding refuge at a children's camp; remaining in England throughout the war and living with a group of young Zionists; enlisting in the British Army in 1943; being sent to a mountain unit, the 52nd Division; receiving his degree at the London School of Economics; spending 18 years in Israel; and immigrating to the United States in 1969.

    Oral history interview with Helen Liebowitz Goldkind

    Oral history interview with Helen Liebowitz Goldkind

    Oral History

    Helen Liebowitz Goldkind, born in Volosyanka, Czechoslovakia (Ukraine) on July 9, 1928, describes her childhood and family; the Hungarian occupation of Czechoslovakia and going into a ghetto in Uzhgorod, Ukraine; maintaining religious traditions in the ghetto; the Germans taking over the ghetto and deporting her and her family to Auschwitz; her transport to another camp and hearing bombs going off during the train ride; arriving in a German camp and working in a munitions factory; going on a truck with two hundred other girls to Bergen-Belsen, where English troops eventually liberated her; the Swedish Red Cross offering to take care of her and others in Sweden; discovering that only one of her sisters survived the war and had immigrated to the United States; and following her sister to the United States, where she settled in New York, NY and got married.

    Oral history interview with Johanne Eva Liebmann

    Oral history interview with Johanne Eva Liebmann

    Oral History

    Johanne Eva Liebmann (née Hirsch), born in 1924 in Karlsruhe, Germany, describes her family and childhood; her family’s deportation to the Gurs camp in southern France in October 1940; being rescued by the Children's Aid Society in September 1941 and hiding in a children’s home in Le Chambon-sur-Lignon, France until 1943, when she obtained false papers and crossed into Switzerland; discovering that her mother had died in Auschwitz; getting married in Geneva, Switzerland in 1945 and having a daughter in 1946; and immigrating to the United States in 1948.

    Oral history interview with Max Liebmann

    Oral history interview with Max Liebmann

    Oral History

    Max Liebmann, born on September 3, 1921 in Mannheim, Germany, describes his family and childhood; attending school until December 1937, when he had to quit because of the antisemitism he was experiencing; his memories of Kristallnacht; his father travelling to Greece and Italy to do business since he could no longer do it in Germany; he and his mother being called into a Wehrmacht office shortly after the war began in September 1939; being made to do forced labor harvesting fields in East Germany; being deported with his mother to the Gurs concentration camp in France; playing the cello as part of several concerts given at Gurs; meeting his future wife in the camp through a connection his mother made; managing inventories for French camp officials; his transfer to the Talluyers camp in July 1942; escaping to Le Chambon, France to reunite with his girlfriend for a short period until they both had to find hiding places; finding a guide to take him through France and into Switzerland; arriving in Ouchy, Switzerland and receiving work papers on December 22, 1942; reuniting with his girlfriend in Switzerland on February 28, 1943 and marrying her in Geneva on April, 14, 1945; having a daughter in 1946; and immigrating to the United States in 1948.

    Oral history interview with Giorgio Perlasca

    Oral history interview with Giorgio Perlasca

    Oral History

    Giorgio Perlasca, born on January 31, 1910 in Como, Italy, describes growing up with a father who worked for the Italian government in Padua; fighting in the Spanish Civil War and later taking a position in an Italian trade firm; working around Eastern Europe after Italy entered World War II in 1940; maintaining an official position with the Italian Trade Commission and living in Belgrade, Yugoslavia in 1941 and 1942; continuing to work for the Italian government until the fall of Admiral Miklos Horthy in 1944; his internment by the Hungarian government from April to October 1944 after the Germans took control of Hungary; escaping his internment with falsified papers provided by a member of the Swiss Diplomatic Corps; adopting a Spanish nationality because of his veteran status from the Spanish Civil War; posing as the Spanish Charge d'Affaires after the flight of the appointed Charge d'Affaires for Spain in December 1944; helping to establish of several safe-houses in Budapest to shelter Jews under Spanish protection; coordinating his efforts with representatives of other neutral nations, including Raoul Wallenberg of Sweden, and the representatives of the Vatican, Portugal, and Switzerland, to shelter and save Jews from deportation; and returning to Italy to start a family in February 1945.

    Oral history interview with David J. Selznick

    Oral history interview with David J. Selznick

    Oral History

    David J. Selznick, born in Anykščiai, Lithuania in 1912, describes growing up as the youngest child in a large family; going to Ukmergė, Lithuania to study at a yeshiva in order to become a rabbi; his father’s death shortly before his twelfth birthday and becoming the legal master of his father's estate; deciding to sell off his family's farm and livestock and move to Kaunas, Lithuania; attending a Yiddish night school in Kaunas and working during the day as a retailer of office supplies; his experiences with antisemitism, which hurt his business; selling his business to two Christians but remaining as a silent partner; receiving a visa to serve as a diplomatic envoy to New York because of his business connections but instead deciding to leave for Portugal; returning to Kaunas in 1936 because he was worried about his mother and sisters; his deportation to the Kaunas ghetto in 1941; performing forced labor until late 1944 because he had worked for the ghetto Kommandant; smuggling food to the Jewish prisoners in the ghetto; escaping during the liquidation of the Kaunas ghetto in July 1944 and fleeing into the countryside, where he hid with some other Jews; his liberation by the Soviet Army; and immigrating to the United States in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Elisabeth Model

    Oral history interview with Elisabeth Model

    Oral History

    Elisabeth Model (née Dittmann), born in Bayreuth, Germany in 1897, describes her family; getting married in 1922 and moving to Amsterdam, where she worked as a sculptor; returning to Germany after Kristallnacht to help her mother emigrate; helping her mother sneak into the Netherlands with the help of a Dutch underground organization; her husband being imprisoned for one month by the Nazis after being falsely accused of smuggling money into the Netherlands; bribing a woman at the Spanish Consulate to give her and her husband exit visas in 1941; traveling to Madrid, Spain; and eventually arriving in to New York, NY in 1942.

    Oral history interview with Joseph Levine

    Oral history interview with Joseph Levine

    Oral History

    Joseph Levine, born in Molodezhnyi, Russia on July 20, 1907, describes the difficulties his family faced in World War I; his family’s immigration to San Francisco, CA on February 12, 1917 and then settling in New Haven, CT; attending Franklin and Marshall College and then the graduate school for Jewish social work; working with the Jewish Board of Guardians for six years until 1941; starting to work as a parole officer in 1941; joining the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee in 1945 as a social worker; going to Schwandorf, Germany, where he worked with many Polish Jews; his transfer to Dachau in October of 1945, where he also worked closely with the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration; bearing witness to the war crime trials at Nuremberg; and returning to the United States, where he worked as the executive secretary of the Indiana Jewish Historical Society.

    Oral history interview with Eugenia Blau Szamosi

    Oral history interview with Eugenia Blau Szamosi

    Oral History

    Eugenia Blau Szamosi, born in Transylvania in 1914, describes her family, childhood, and growing up in Budapest, Hungary; her experiences with antisemitism in Hungary; marrying in November 1941 and having a son the following year and a girl the next; her husband avoiding forced labor by spending time in a mental hospital; having to move into the Jewish section of the town and wear the yellow star after the German invasion of Hungary; escaping from the Budapest ghetto and looking for a flat in town; pretending to be a Transylvanian refugee because she had Aryan looks; returning to the ghetto to work with her husband in a children’s home and await deportation; getting the supplies to make shutzpasses for people; getting Spanish passports for her and her husband, which helped to save them from deportation; her family’s liberation and her husband’s work for the International Red Cross after the war; and immigrating to Israel in June 1949.

    Oral history interview with Irene Dynkiewicz Silver

    Oral history interview with Irene Dynkiewicz Silver

    Oral History

    Irene Dynkiewicz Silver, born in January 1933 in Łódź, Poland, describes her family and the Jewish community in her town before the war; her family’s move to Warsaw just as the German bombardment of Warsaw began; the establishment of the Warsaw ghetto wall; learning how to read and write from one of her cousins; wearing a kerchief and putting on lipstick to look older and avoid deportation during ghetto-round ups; going into hiding in January 1943 with a woman who had managed to attain a Christian identity for her; not being able to leave the home in which she hid and reading to pass her time; attending school for the first time after the war; traveling to London with several other children to attend a boarding school established by a rabbi; and immigrating to Brooklyn, NY in January 1950 to live with her aunt and uncle.

    Oral history interview with Alice Lok Cahana

    Oral history interview with Alice Lok Cahana

    Oral History

    Alice Lok Cahana, born on February 7, 1929 in Sárvár, Hungary, discusses her childhood; her relationships with her parents, grandfather, and siblings; her experiences in the ghetto in Sárvár, which was situated in a brick factory; her work with children in the ghetto; her deportation by train to Auschwitz; her experiences in "C Lager" of Auschwitz; her memories of selections by Dr. Josef Mengele; her successful rescue of her sister Edith from the infirmary in Auschwitz; her survival of the Auschwitz gas chamber because of a malfunction in the chamber; her memories of camp guard Irma Grese; her transfer from Auschwitz to the Guben concentration camp where she worked in an ammunition factory; her participation in a death march with a group from Guben; her escape and subsequent return to the death march group; her separation from her sister in Bergen-Belsen; her evacuation from Bergen-Belsen and transport to a hospital in Sweden; her reunion with her father in Hungary; her illegal immigration to Israel by boat; her return to Sweden with her husband Moshe Cahana; the Cahana family's move to the United States; and her thoughts on the rescue efforts of Raoul Wallenberg in Hungary.

    Oral history interview with Eva Brust Cooper

    Oral history interview with Eva Brust Cooper

    Oral History

    Eva Brust Cooper, born in 1934 in Budapest, Hungary, discusses her childhood; living on the Pest side of the Danube River; her memories of the German invasion of Hungary in March 1944; the various types of persecution experienced by the Jews in Budapest including the wearing of yellow Stars of David; her father receiving papers from Raoul Wallenberg to avoid deportation; the family's time in hiding in various locations around Budapest; her and her mother's attempts to appear Catholic by going to church, learning the Catechism, and acquiring false identification papers; her family's return to Budapest at the end of World War II; her father's participation in negotiations with Adolf Eichmann in hopes of reducing the number of Hungarian Jews to be deported; her family's immigration to the United States and their new life in New York City; and her activities with various Holocaust survivor groups.

    Oral history interview with Jacob Vogel

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Frieda Belinfante

    Oral history interview with Frieda Belinfante

    Oral History

    Frieda Belinfante, born in 1904 in Amsterdam, Netherlands, describes her family; being raised without a religion because her father was Jewish and her mother was Gentile; the death of her sister in 1915 after an appendectomy and the divorce of her parents soon after; the death of her father in 1923 from natural causes; not being surprised by the Nazi invasion of the Netherlands; getting married in 1931 and divorcing in 1936; becoming the first female conductor of a professional orchestra in Amsterdam; participating in the cultural commission of Amsterdam and receiving instructions from the Nazis about what artists should or should not do; making false identification cards to help save people; discovering her homosexuality but trying to keep it a secret during the war; living disguised as a man for three months; taking on a new female identity and fleeing to Switzerland; participating in several activities of sabotage with other gay and lesbian refugees; returning to Amsterdam after the war and discovering the fates of the members of the resistance group in which she participated; immigrating to the United States in 1947 for a change of scenery in her work; participating in a string of concerts in the US; and her life in America.

    Oral history interview with Philip Vock

    Oral History

    Philip Vock, born in 1929 in Paris, France, discusses his family background and childhood; the German invasion of France in 1940; the confiscation of the family business by the Germans; antisemitism that he encountered in the media and in personal contacts; leaving the occupied zone of France in 1941 and finding refuge in a town on the Spanish border; the German occupation of their town in November 1942; fleeing to Nice, France, which was occupied by the Italians; being denounced to and arrested by the Gestapo as they were preparing to move to another town; being transported to Drancy concentration camp in 1943; life in Drancy and the possibility of escape from the camp; his deportation to Auschwitz concentration camp in 1944; the intake process at Auschwitz and then his outside work detail; the black market within Auschwitz; a death march in January 1945 as the Allies were approaching the camp; life in Buchenwald and liberation; returning to Paris in April 1945; the return of his mother and uncle; and nightmares that he had after liberation.

    Oral history interview with Joseph Gatenio

    Oral History

    Joseph Gatenio, born in 1929 in Thessalonike, Greece, discusses his childhood; the German occupation of Thessalonike in 1940; his deportation from Greece with his family in 1943; the week-long journey to Birkenau; selections at Birkenau; the deaths of family members; his participation in the camp orchestra; how orchestra members helped him survive; being forced to leave the orchestra; the brutality of the SS and Kapos; being transferred from Birkenau to Henkel, then Sachsenhausen, Ohrdruf, Sachsenhausen again, Neubrandenburg, Ravensbrück, and finally Ludwigslust; the appalling conditions in the camps; staying in Ludwigslust until May 1 when they were transported to another camp; his liberation by American soldiers the next day; joining the Russian liberators and wandering throughout Europe for a few months; returning to Thessalonike in December 1945; and the long-term effects of his experiences during the Holocaust on his well-being.

    Oral history interview with Mariette Moscovici

    Oral History

    Mariette Moscovici, born on January 24, 1916 in Iasi, Romania, discusses her family; her father, Hani Garfiender, who was a merchant and owned a store for travel items; her mother, Cecile Garfiender, who was a housewife; attending Alexandru Labrian elementary school; attending Institute Notre Dame for high school; living in Iasi on Cuza Voda street and later on Ice Bratianu street; Rumania entering the war on June 22, 1941; German soldiers entering on the night of June 29, 1941 and taking away all the Jewish men from the shelter; going to the Jewish community the next morning to ask about the fate of the Jewish men and not receiving an answer; stopping at a friend’s house on the way home to warn the men in the family about the arrest of the Jewish men; being stopped on the way home and directed into a convoy; finding her mother and sister in the convoy; being taken to the police headquarters; more Jews arriving at the headquarters wearing pajamas and night gowns because they were taken without anytime to get dressed; the women and girls being released while the men and boys over the age 13 were detained; the chaos of the scene; her father arriving at the shelter in the afternoon; the numerous false alarms to concentrate the population in shelters; the German soldiers enter the shelter around 5pm and demanding their jewelry and money; giving one of the soldiers her money and being instructed by the soldier to go home and not enter the shelters; leaving her aunt’s house with her family the next morning (June 30, 1941) and going home; seeing posters on wall that state the “Communist Jews” of Iasi have been arrested and killed and the rest of the population can continue their lives; staying home and not knowing what happened to other people; going to a market with her cousin dressed like peasants and seeing dead bodies on the street; Jews not being allowed to travel; and the propaganda in the news.

    Oral history interview with Henry van den Boogard

    Oral history interview with Henry van den Boogard

    Oral History

    Henry van den Boogard, born in Holland in 1915, discusses his childhood in Tilburg, Netherlands; his early education and seminary days; his ordination to the priesthood and first mass in 1942; his memories of Jews being helped by non-Jews in the Netherlands; his personal activities with the resistance movement in southern Netherlands such as making false identification papers for various persons, smuggling children into the Netherlands for hiding, and finding hiding places in homes for Jews and other persons; his dealings with the black market in the Netherlands in order to clothe and feed people in hiding; his reflections on antisemitism in the Netherlands; the German invasion of the Netherlands in 1940; the feelings of native Hollanders toward the "Dutch Nazis"; and his life after World War II in the United States where he worked to integrate Catholic churches in Virginia.

    Oral history interview with Jack Moss

    Oral History

    Jack Moss (né Jakuv Mozelsio), born in 1924 in Łódź, Poland, discusses his family background; his encounters with Polish antisemitism; his family's feelings about the possibility of a German occupation; the restrictions imposed on Jews by the Germans; the lucrative business that the Germans brought to his father's tannery; odd jobs that he did at the request of the Germans, including helping to tear down a statue of Tadeusz Kościuszko in Plac Wolności; a German friend who agreed to be a stand-in owner of the tannery, so it would not be confiscated; his uncle, aunt, and other family members fleeing to Tomaszów Mazowiecki, Poland for safety while he and his parents stayed in Łódź; the return of his sister and cousin from Tomaszów Mazowiecki; and how the rest of his family in Tomaszów Mazowiecki perished while he and the others who remained in Łódź were saved.

    Oral history interview with Boleslaw Dytlow

    Oral history interview with Boleslaw Dytlow

    Oral History

    Boleslaw Dytlow, born in 1932 in Pruszków, Poland, describes growing up in a Romani family; the German occupation in September 1939; moving to Warsaw, Poland with his family and earning money there as a musician; being captured on the streets in Warsaw in late 1942 and delivered into the Warsaw ghetto; meeting other Romanies in the ghetto and forming a plan to escape; escaping to the Aryan side in the spring of 1943; leaving Warsaw and only traveling by night; being ambushed by German soldiers on the outskirts of Kielce, Poland; successfully overpowering the Germans and escaping back to Warsaw; and remaining hidden outside of Warsaw until the end of the war.

    Oral history interview with Mel London

    Oral History

    Mel London, born in 1923, discusses growing up in the Bronx, NY with immigrant parents; his awareness of the political situation in Europe before World War II; his concern for family in Europe; his identification with being Jewish; enlisting in the United States Army signal corps in May 1943; going to Officer Candidate School; antisemitism he encountered in the army and prejudice because of his friendships with black soldiers; seeing the aftermath of World War II in Europe; his knowledge of the Nuremberg war crime trials; becoming a documentary filmmaker; the request to interview Albert Speer after his book "Inside the Third Reich" was published in 1970; preparing for the interview; different attitudes towards Speer among Germans of different generations; and his perceptions of Speer.

    Oral history interview with Henry Cohen

    Oral history interview with Henry Cohen

    Oral History

    Henry Cohen, born in 1922 in New York City, NY, describes growing up in a family of Jewish immigrants; receiving a master’s degree in city planning from Massachusetts Institute of Technology; enlisting in the United States Army in 1944 and fighting with the infantry during the German campaign; his appointment as the director of the Föhrenwald displaced persons camp in Germany in January of 1946; leading the camp until July 1946; and returning to the United States to teach at the City College of New York.

    Oral history interview with Gisela Feldman

    Oral History

    Gisela Feldman, born in 1923, discusses her first encounters with antisemitism in Berlin, Germany after Hitler came to power in 1933 and her political awareness at that time; her father's deportation to Poland in 1938 because he was a Polish citizen; the confiscation of her family's apartment; being barred from going to school; her mother obtaining visas to Cuba and booking passage on the SS St. Louis; her father not being able to leave Poland in time to join them on the SS St. Louis; departing with her mother and sister from Germany in 1939; the atmosphere on board the ship; their arrival in Cuba and the announcement that their visas were no longer valid; the desperation of some passengers on board; sailing near the coast of the United States during the return journey to Europe; her family being selected to disembark in England; her job as a domestic in a convalescent home for Jewish refugees in Broadstairs and then as a nanny for a family with two children in London; her involvement in war work, making uniforms and gunpowder bags; meeting and marrying her husband in London in 1943; her mother's attempts to get permission for her father to emigrate from Poland; and her life in England after the war.

    Oral history interview with Bert Fleming and Irene Fleming

    Oral History

    Bert Fleming and Irene Fleming describe how Bert grew up in Warsaw and Łódź; Bert’s family’s deportation to Hannover, Germany before Kristallnacht; Bert’s deportation from Hannover in 1938, receiving aid from the Joint Distribution Committee, and going through the camps; Irene witnessing people being smuggled from her ghetto and fleeing to Siberia; Irene holding on to her violin through her time in the camps; their experiences with Mordechai Chaim Rumkowski and his relationship with the Nazis in the Łódź ghetto; Bert having to shave his head and watch people steal food while in the camps; Bert’s work in several different factories and the transport of all of the goods he produced to Germany; and their immigration to New York and life after the war.

    Oral history interview with Norman Belfer

    Oral history interview with Norman Belfer

    Oral History

    Norman Belfer, born on September 27, 1922 in Wodzislaw, Poland, describes growing up in an Orthodox Jewish family; the German invasion of Wodzislaw in 1939 and hiding in his family’s factory warehouse until they were discovered; the confiscation of his father’s feather and down business; being forced to clean roads around the town with other youth; going to work for a nearby German company while the rest of his family went into hiding in an underground shelter outside of Wodzislaw; his family’s capture and transfer into the Kraków ghetto; returning home, where he retrieved some of the money his family had buried before they had left; hiding for several weeks in his father’s former factory; joining his family in the Kraków ghetto; the liquidation of the ghetto on March 13, 1943; his family’s transfer to Płaszów, where an SS guard shot his father, and his mother and sisters were sent elsewhere; being transferred with his brother to Mauthausen, where they volunteered as carpenters until they were sent to Melk; digging tunnels and moving machinery for several months at Melk with his brother; going on a barge to Linz and then going on a death march to Ebensee; his liberation by American forces on May 5, 1945; walking to Salzburg with his brother but deciding to go to Palestine through Italy; and remaining and working in Italy until he immigrated to the United States in 1950.

    Oral history interview with Carol Stern Steinhardt

    Oral history interview with Carol Stern Steinhardt

    Oral History

    Carola Stern Steinhardt, born on March 8, 1925 in Nieder Ohmen, Germany, describes losing her non-Jewish friends after 1933; her experiences during Kristallnacht; attending a boarding school in Bad Nauheim until the Gestapo stormed it and harassed students; her father’s deportation to Buchenwald; her mother’s and sister’s arrival in Bad Nauheim; going to Berlin to do hard labor at an airplane factory until her deportation to Auschwitz in March 1943; her selection to be a camp “beautician,” which involved cutting the hair off of incoming prisoners; reuniting with her sister in August 1944 and learning that her parents had died; going on a march to Ravensbrück in January 1945; staying in Ravensbrück for four weeks until having to march to Malchow, where she worked in the camp kitchen; her liberation by American forces in May 1945; her internment in the Kammer displaced persons camp in Austria; and immigrating to the United States in July 1946 on an army transport.

    Oral history interview with Haim Shmueli

    Oral History

    Haim Shmueli (né Heinz Ruman Shmoll), born in 1935 in was born in 1935 in Usti nad Labem, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), describes his family and childhood; his mother’s conversion to Judaism, which she renounced when Hitler came to power; moving to Germany in 1938; his father’s involvement in the underground movement; his deportation to Theresienstadt and his memories of the children’s part of the camp; participating in the propaganda movie filmed in Theresienstadt; his liberation from Theresienstadt in 1945; reuniting with his father after the war; and immigrating to Israel with his father in 1949.

    Oral history interview with Itka Zygmuntowicz

    Oral History

    Itka Zygmuntowicz, born April 15, 1926 in Poland (possibly Ciechanów), discusses her family and childhood in Poland before World War II; her experiences with antisemitism before the war; relations between her family and Gentiles in her hometown; her knowledge of politics as a child and involvement in the Zionist movement; the German occupation of her hometown and the restrictions that the Germans imposed on the Jewish population; the confiscation of her family's valuables; a beating that she and her mother suffered at the hands of the Gestapo for not revealing information; her family's deportation to the ghetto in Nové Město in 1941; the liquidation of the ghetto in 1942 and the mass deportation to Auschwitz; her arrival at Auschwitz and her separation from her parents and younger siblings who perished in the camp; finding a friend named Binna in the camp; her forms of spiritual, mental, and physical resistance as a prisoner; her contact with the guards in the camp; her experience sorting the belongings of dead prisoners in the "Kanada" warehouse; a death march in January 1945 to Ravensbrück concentration camp and then a transport to Malchow concentration camp; her liberation during Passover in 1945; recuperating at a hospital in Sweden after the war through the help of the Swedish Red Cross; living in a displaced persons camp in Sweden; leaving the camp with two friends and getting a job; meeting and marrying her husband and the birth of her son in 1948; and her immigration to the United States in 1953.

    Oral history interview with Gertrude Granirer Flor

    Oral History

    Gertrude Granirer Flor, born in 1921 in Chernivtsi, Ukraine, discusses her childhood; the lack of antisemitism she encountered growing up; the Soviet occupation in 1940 and the confiscation of Jewish property; Soviet propaganda and the pressure to inform on others; the arrest and execution of her step-father; involuntary deportations by the Soviets to Siberia, including the deportation of her mother; escaping from a deportation and finding refuge at the conservatory of the Universitatea din Cernauți; meeting and marrying her husband, Sam; the German occupation of Chernivtsi; German restrictions and the establishment of the ghetto in Chernivtsi; the help that the mayor of Chernivtsi extended to the Jewish population; deportation by train to a stone quarry where she and her husband stayed for several weeks; her husband telling the Romanian authorities that he was a dentist, so that they would be transferred to a work detail in a hospital; being liberated by Russian partisans after being in hiding for several days; returning to Chernivtsi and joining the Czech Army; being part of the liberation of Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); immigrating to South America with a stopover in the United States on the way; living in Columbia with an uncle on his coffee plantation for six months and then immigrating to the United States; her feelings about her new country and the difficulties she experienced as an immigrant; and how her experiences during the Holocaust have affected her life.

    Oral history interview with Renee Scheuer

    Oral History

    Renee Scheuer, born in 1909 in Vienna, Austria, discusses her childhood; antisemitism in Vienna before World War II; her and her husband’s arrest in November 1938 and the order to leave Austria in three days; traveling to Cologne, Germany and then to Belgium on foot; living in a refugee camp in Antwerp, Belgium; the occupation of Belgium by Germany in 1939 and their attempt to escape to France; returning to Belgium and living in Brussels where they had to wear Star of David badges; receiving a notice to report to a concentration camp; she and her husband going into hiding in Brussels in 1942 and staying in different hiding places until liberation in 1945; the feelings that she had during the events of the Holocaust; the resistance of the Belgian population against the Germans; the fates of her mother and sister; returning to visit Vienna in the 1970s; her immigration to the United States in 1950; and settling in New York City.

    Oral history interview with Bent Melchior

    Oral history interview with Bent Melchior

    Oral History

    Bent Melchoir, born in Denmark, describes growing up with a father who was a rabbi; the ease of relations between Jews and Christians in Denmark; the help that the Danish Christian community gave to the Jewish community to help them escape to Sweden; raising money with his brother to get Jews out of Denmark; the Danish resistance movement; leaving Copenhagen and arriving in Sweden by small boat; returning to Denmark three weeks after liberation; his surprise at the jubilant welcome given by the Danes when the Jews returned; the re-opening of the local synagogue for the fall holidays in 1945; and working on behalf of Soviet Jewry after the war.

    Oral history interview with Reuven Paikowski

    Oral history interview with Reuven Paikowski

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Renata Laqueur

    Oral history interview with Renata Laqueur

    Oral History

    Renata Laqueur, born on November 3, 1919 in Brzeg, Poland, describes growing up in Amsterdam; never considering herself Jewish and attending a Christian school as a child; the German invasion in 1940 and registering as a Jew; her father’s decision to volunteer for the German Army as a medical research officer; her marriage to Paul Goldschmidt on December 24, 1941; becoming involved in the underground movement with Paul; her arrest on February 18, 1943, when the Gestapo took her to a prison for ten days until her transfer to the Vught transit camp in the Netherlands; her transport to the Westerbork transit camp, from where she was soon released because of her father’s connections; being arrested again in November 1943; her and Paul’s transport to Bergen-Belsen on March 15, 1944; writing a daily diary about her experiences in the camp; her liberation by the Soviet Army on April 23, 1945; recovering from illness in a field hospital outside of Dresden; spending a week in a displaced persons camp near Kassel; returning to Amsterdam on July 26, 1945; and immigrating to the United States through Canada in 1952.

    Oral history interview with Carl Hirsch

    Oral History

    Carl Hirsch, born in 1912, discusses his childhood in Vienna, Austria and Chernivtsi, Ukraine; his schooling in mathematics and engineering in his university studies; his work as a civil engineer and service in the Romanian Army before World War II; his first experiences with antisemitism when Romania occupied Chernivtsi and when he lived in Bucharest; Soviet occupation of Chernivtsi from 1940 to 1941; the deportation of business owners in Chernivtsi to Siberia; the Soviet withdrawal in June 1941 and Jews fleeing with them; the takeover of the town by Germans and Romanians and the persecution of Jews; finding a job with the railway, so he would not be taken for forced labor; the establishment of the ghetto in Chernivtsi; his marriage to Lotte; witnessing deportations from Chernivtsi; the influx of Romanians into Chernivtsi; the return of many Jews who had fled with the Russians; the integration of Chernivtsi into the Soviet Union in 1945; leaving Chernivtsi and living in Romania from 1945 until 1961; and immigrating to the United States in 1962.

    Oral history interview with Lotte Hirsch

    Oral History

    Lotte Hirsch, born in 1918 in Chernivtsi, Ukraine, describes her childhood; her encounters with antisemitism while she attended university; the Soviet occupation of Chernivtsi from 1940 to 1941 and having to stop her university studies and work in a factory; witnessing deportations to Siberia carried out by the Russians; Romanian and German troops taking over Chernivtsi and establishing a ghetto and several restrictions on the Jewish population; hearing about executions carried out by the German and Romanian soldiers; how her fiancé Carl was able to obtain an exemption from deportation because of his profession as an engineer; her marriage to Carl in a civil ceremony in the mayor's office; life under the occupation; witnessing more deportations in 1942; receiving better treatment after a new governor of Bukovina was instated; the return of Carl's cousin from deportation to Transnistria; her liberation by the Russians in 1944; and her immigration to the United States in 1962.

    Oral history interview with Walter Meyer

    Oral history interview with Walter Meyer

    Oral History

    Walter Meyer, born on May 31, 1926 in Kassel, Germany, describes growing up as a Catholic in a diverse religious community in Düsseldorf; his experiences during Kristallnacht; joining the Hitler Youth in 1940 but then deciding to organize another group to oppose the Hitler Youth; his recruitment into a military academy, to which his father did not allow him to go; assisting French prisoners of war in 1943 until the Gestapo caught him and placed him in a Düsseldorf prison; his transfer to a prison near Frankfurt, where he remained until the spring of 1944 when the prison director recommended him for the army; his deportation to Sachsenhausen and then Ravensbrück; escaping from Ravensbrück and hiding with a farmer who lived nearby; returning to Berlin and then Düsseldorf; recovering from tuberculosis after returning home; and immigrating to the United States in 1958.

    Oral history interview with Dora Kramen Dimitro

    Oral history interview with Dora Kramen Dimitro

    Oral History

    Dora Kramen Dimitro, born on January 22, 1922 in Eišiškės, Poland (now Lithuania), describes growing up in an Orthodox Jewish home with her parents and three siblings; attending Hebrew and Polish schools and experiencing antisemitism; the Russian arrival in Eišiškės in 1939; losing their rights as Jewish citizens when the Germans invaded in 1941; the Germans ordering them to assemble at the synagogue, where they were kept for two days and nights before many were taken away and shot; escaping with her boyfriend with the help of a Lithuanian police officer; the murder of most of her family on September 25 and 26, 1941; going to the Radun ghetto, where she met up with her father, sister, and boyfriend and stayed for ten months until they decided to escape because of ghetto liquidation warnings; running into the woods and trading valuables for food and clothing; living in the woods until late 1942 or early 1943 when they moved into the Hrodna ghetto in Belarus because they had heard of its better conditions; the transports from the ghetto two to three months after her arrival; fleeing to the Nacha Forest in Belarus; joining Jewish and Soviet partisans and staying in their underground bunker through the winter; hiding in homes or in the forest until the Russians liberated her in July 1944; returning to Eišiškės but fleeing when a group of Poles attacked the few remaining Jews there; marrying her boyfriend and living in Vilnius and Warsaw before moving to Israel in 1957; immigrating to the United States in March 1959 with her sister's help; and giving birth to a son soon after her arrival in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Herma Barber

    Oral History

    Herma Barber, born in 1921 in Vienna, Austria, discusses her childhood; experiencing antisemitism after the Anschluss in 1938; her and her parents' unsuccessful attempts to immigrate to the United States and their decision to go to Yugoslavia instead; their journey into Yugoslavia by foot; their arrest in Zagreb, Croatia and spending a week in jail; being confined to the town of Samobor after their release from jail; deportation by the Ustaša in 1941 to Mostar, which the Italian military occupied; being moved to Čapljina by the Italians; traveling to Split, Croatia without permission and being arrested and put in jail by the Italians for a week; being moved to Dubrovnik, Croatia, where she worked in a restaurant and also did knitting for a store; not having enough to eat; going to an Italian-run concentration camp in 1943; their escape from the camp to a partisan-controlled area of Yugoslavia; being in the same town as Randolph Churchill during a British diplomatic mission to the partisans in Drvar in 1944; moving constantly with help from partisans; she and her parents escaping separately to Bari, Italy in 1944 and 1945; her life in the refugee camp at Bari and her marriage in 1946; and her parents' immigration to the United States in 1946 and her immigration to the United States in 1949.

    Oral history interview with William Zeck and Belle Mayer Zeck

    Oral history interview with William Zeck and Belle Mayer Zeck

    Oral History

    William Zeck (born on March 3, 1915 in New York City, NY) and Belle Mayer Zeck (born on February 22, 1919 in Port Henry, NY) describe their families and childhoods; Belle's work as a New York lawyer and getting a job working for the General Counsel of the Treasury and working on the Foreign Funds Control Bureau; helping the bureau to enforce the Trading With the Enemy Act, which forbade communication with and transmissions to German occupied countries; working on a book analyzing Yugoslavia’s financial laws and investigating Germany’s external assets in the United States; Belle becoming an unofficial expert on German financial affairs at the Department of the Treasury and attending the commission for the Allied nations to outline the principles of law for prosecution and trial of Europe’s major war criminals; Belle meeting William when they were both preparing for the Nuremberg Trials; the deterioration of Belle's health as she prepared for the trials and having to go home; Belle returning to Nuremberg in 1947 for the start of the trial; going back to work for the Department of the Treasury to organize the reconstruction loans for the United Kingdom, France, and Germany; their friendship with Telford Taylor; and William’s return to the United States after six years.

    Oral history interview with Michel Reynders

    Oral history interview with Michel Reynders

    Oral History

    Michel Reynders, born on June 29, 1930, in Uccle, Belgium, describes his experiences as the nephew of Father Bruno Reynders, who ran a rescue network that saved about 350 Jews; growing up in a tight-knit Catholic family; helping Father Bruno in his efforts to hide Jewish children by coercing local families to take them into their homes; being unaware of antisemitism until the war; helping a young girl who had fled from Fascist Italy; the German occupation and the following food shortages, imposed curfews, censored textbooks, and Jewish transports out of Belgium; beginning to observe the restrictions placed on Jewish neighbors in 1942 and realizing that it was primarily Jews who were being taken for forced labor in Germany; his introduction to the resistance movement around the end of 1942 and serving as an escort and messenger for his uncle's rescue service; initially having no idea that the children his uncle asked him to escort were Jewish or that Father Bruno was secretly hiding them throughout Belgium; eventually understanding what his family was doing and that his uncle's actions were secret and extremely risky; his family's decision to hide several Jews; graduating from medical school in 1959 and immigrating to the United States in 1961; and being named as the Honorary Vice-Consul of Belgium.

    Oral history interview with Marthe Hoffnung Cohn

    Oral history interview with Marthe Hoffnung Cohn

    Oral History

    Marthe Hoffnung Cohn, born on April 13, 1920 in Metz, France, describes her childhood; being forced by the French government to move out of Metz along with all of its other rich families; moving to Poitiers, France, where, in June 1940, Jewish refugees started coming; attending a Red Cross nursing school in Poitiers; escaping with her family to the unoccupied side of France in the summer of 1942; the arrest of her sister Stephanie, who later died in Auschwitz; becoming involved in resistance and rescue operations, which enabled her to get her parents, grandmother, two sisters, and a cousin to the unoccupied zone of France; finishing nursing school in Marseilles; leaving Marseilles for Paris, where she lived with one of her sisters and found a job with a family that did not know she was Jewish; joining the French Army after the liberation of Paris; doing intelligence work for the Army because she could speak German; going undercover as a German nurse and receiving two Croix de Guerre medals, signed by Generals De Lattre and De Gaulle, for her work; going to Vietnam with the French Army after the war; and immigrating to the United States in 1956.

    Oral history interview with Miriam Kabacznik Shulman

    Oral history interview with Miriam Kabacznik Shulman

    Oral History

    Miriam Kabacznik Shulman, born on June 26, 1918, in Eišiškės, Poland (Lithuania), describes her childhood; her father’s death of typhus during World War I and living with her mother and two brothers; the Russian arrival in Eišiškės in September 1939 and the nationalization of her family’s tannery business; the Lithuanian takeover in 1940 followed by the German invasion on June 23, 1941; the German implementation of edicts that restricted and isolated Jews; the murder of most of the town’s Jews by an einsatzgruppen squad between September 25 and 26, 1941; the help their family’s friends and co-workers gave them throughout the war by hiding money and providing information and hiding places; hiding from the Germans from 1941 through 1944, when they were liberated by Russian soldiers; returning to their home in June 1944 to find an elderly couple living there; deciding to allow the couple to stay and inviting about twenty other Jews to live in their home; living through a Polish pogrom in 1944; fleeing to Vilnius the day after the pogrom and never returning to her home; spending the next years of her life in several displaced persons camps; meeting her future husband Norman in an Italian prison; and immigrating with Norman to the United States, where they had two children.

    Oral history interview with Anna Szyller Palarczyk

    Oral history interview with Anna Szyller Palarczyk

    Oral History

    Anna Szyller Palarczyk, born on July 21, 1918 in Kraków, Poland, describes her family; studying law in Kraków before World War II; working for the underground organization Armed Struggle Alliance; the arrest of everyone in her underground group in June 1942 and their deportation to Montelupich, where they faced harsh interrogations; her transport on August 17, 1942 to Auschwitz, where she was selected as a cleaning woman for Lauder Kommandant Otto Schmidt; walking to the Birkenau camp and being admitted to the sick-room in Birkenau for flu-like symptoms; her experiences in camp with having little food and seeing dead bodies lying around her; the women guards, including Margot Drexler (Dreschel); Katya Singer, who was from Mariková, Slovakia and was appointed as a Raportschreiberin (assistant to the guards) and her activities in the camp; making friends in the camp, which helped her to survive emotionally; the roll calls and selections she went through; the black market in Auschwitz; the Red Cross sending packages to Jewish women in the camps; concerts that were played sometimes in the camps; discovering the fates of her family and friends after the war; and seeing the Russian Army unite with the American Army during liberation.

    Oral history interview with Steven Galezewski

    Oral history interview with Steven Galezewski

    Oral History

    Steven Galezewski, born on May 11, 1923 in Inowroclaw, Poland, describes his childhood; joining the Polish underground in Mińsk Mazowiecki, Poland; recalling that, in 1940, the Nazis ordered all the Jews to wear an armband with the Star of David; the relocation of his community into the Mińsk ghetto at the end of 1940; the liquidation of the ghetto on August 21, 1942 and the survival of only 282 tradesmen who were still useful to the Nazi war effort; participating in underground activities, which included blowing up buildings or means of transportation; his resistance unit being sent under Soviet command; being stationed in Lublin, Poland; providing security for the public hanging of five SS officers in Majdanek in 1944; remaining in Soviet hands from March to July 1945; being perceived by the Soviet Union as a potentially subversive element supporting the Polish government-in-exile and then receiving a prison sentence from the Soviets; his transport to Siberia, where Polish guerrillas freed him; escaping into the American zone; joining the Polish Army in Italy but returning from Italy in 1947 and joining the British Army; immigrating to the United States in February 1951; and joining the US Army in 1956.

    Oral history interview with George Havas

    Oral history interview with George Havas

    Oral History

    George Havas, born in 1929 in Mukacheve, Czechoslovakia (now Ukraine), describes the Hungarian takeover of his town after the Germans took the Sudetenland; his father no longer being allowed to practice medicine; the German takeover of Mukacheve in March 1944; his transport to Auschwitz on May 15, 1944; learning after the war that his father had died in the Sonderkommando uprising in Auschwitz; being transferred to Mauthausen and then to Ebensee, where he stayed for one year until liberation; working in the tunnels at Ebensee, where he was able to make contacts and bring back news; the death of his brother and several of his friends in Ebensee; his liberation on May 6, 1945 and leaving for Prague on June 7; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with Maria Rosenbloom

    Oral history interview with Maria Rosenbloom

    Oral History

    Maria Rosenbloom, born on December 26, 1918 in Kolomyia, Poland (Ukraine), describes her Orthodox Jewish family; learning the violin and playing it every weekend in the Hatikva before the war; feeling increased antisemitic sentiments and fleeing with her family into the Carpathian Mountains; attending a special gymnasium for girls in Poland; starting university in 1936 in Lvov, Poland (L'viv, Ukraine) and never being allowed to sit down because she was Jewish; vacationing with a boyfriend in the Carpathian Mountains until the Soviet invasion on September 1, 1939; getting married in 1940; the Soviets taking away her father’s store because of nationalization policies; opening a pharmacy with her husband in 1940 in a small town called Glen-na-novaria [phonetic] and being pestered by the Russians for condoms; the Nazi invasion on June 21, 1941 and registering with the troops; contracting pneumonia and being treated with leeches; moving into the ghetto after Passover in 1942; working in the ghetto soup kitchen; escaping from the ghetto on Christmas in 1942 and going to live with her friend Blancka; discovering the fates of her family during the war and finding a job in a German hospital; taking a train to Warsaw, Poland in April 1943 and hearing rumors about what was happening to the Jews; living in fear that she would be caught because of her prominent Jewish features; joining the resistance movement; the chaos of the Warsaw uprising in 1944; having to join a Hitler parade in 1944 in an attempt to fit in; taking a train to Heidelberg, Germany hoping to reunite with Blancka; the German surrender of Heidelberg to the Americans and deciding to learn English; working for the US Army and then the Joint Distribution Committee; immigrating to the United States in September 1947; and becoming a social worker.

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