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Oral history interview with Guta Jacobson

Oral History | Digitized | Accession Number: 1998.A.0128 | RG Number: RG-50.106.0100

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    Oral history interview with Guta Jacobson
    Transcript
    This is an interview for the US Holocaust Memorial Museum
    volunteer collection.
    We are interviewing Guta Jacobson.
    My name is Esther Finder.
    The interview was in Rockville, Maryland,
    and the language will be English.
    Can you tell me, what was your name at birth?
    My name was Guta Rogowtz.
    Could you spell your last name for me?
    R-O-G-O-W-T-Z.
    Were you born and where?
    I was born in Lodz April 23, 1925.
    Can you tell me your parents' names?
    My mother was No'ah, Noah, and my--
    my father was Noah, and my mother was Chaya Rogowitz.
    Her maiden name was Steinfeld.
    Do you have any brothers or sisters?
    I have three sisters besides me.
    I had-- besides me, so we were four together.
    One got killed, and we survived, three of us.
    Can you tell me their names?
    Esther, Bella, and Guta.
    That's the oldest, which is-- her life is Esther.
    The middle one is Bella, and I'm the youngest, Guta.
    And the name of the sibling that did not survive?
    Hanna.
    Where did you grow up?
    In Poland, in Lodz.
    Can you tell me what Lodz was like in your childhood?
    Well, as young as I was, I belonged
    to a organization, HaNoar HaTzioni,
    and we really got to know at that time what Palestine meant.
    I was quite--
    I don't know if I was 11 years old when
    I started to go to the HaNoar.
    It was a very nice group of youngsters.
    We worked very nicely.
    We learn a lot.
    And until 1939 we went to the Lodz Ghetto.
    Can you describe what Lodz the city was like?
    Was it a big city?
    Well, Lodz was a very, very big city,
    and it was a prosperous city.
    My father was a textile, and that was very high in textile.
    I went to school, the public school.
    I had a beautiful religious home.
    My mother was wearing a wig, quite
    observant in Jewish religion, and that's how I was raised.
    Were there many Jews in the town?
    A lot of Jews, a lot of Jews, bustling with Jews and stores.
    But I was young.
    I wasn't so interested in these things.
    We had a nice home.
    In your childhood, what were the relationships
    like between the Jews and the Christians in the town?
    Strange, a little strange.
    I lived [PLACE NAME] 23 [PLACE NAME],,
    and I lived among a lot of Christians.
    In fact, when I came back from concentration camp
    after the war, I went to the Christian.
    I was with my sister, with middle sister,
    and they were wondering that we are still alive.
    I received letters from them because we
    weren't there anymore.
    But I didn't want to stay among them.
    My aim was to go to Palestine.
    Before the war, did you experience any antisemitism?
    No, I was too young for that.
    I was 13 years old.
    I didn't experience too many antisemitism, not too much,
    not-- well, I lived in an affluent place in Lodz,
    and I didn't--
    in school you would ask--
    I was a Jew, and in fact, I liked my teacher.
    and I always was carrying her bags home,
    and I didn't really experience too much antisemitism.
    You mentioned that your father was in textiles,
    was a textile manufacturer?
    Yes.
    What work did your mother do?
    My mother didn't work.
    She was a little--
    selling certain things, like home things, but a regular job
    she never had, not that I remember.
    She was just a homemaker?
    She was just a homemaker, yeah.
    What jobs and responsibilities did you children
    have in your household?
    My own children?
    No, you.
    When you were a child, what were some of your chores
    or your jobs were on the house?
    Before the war, I didn't have any special responsibilities.
    Yes, I did have one responsible, which I'll never forget.
    I had to come home-- we only had school to 1:00 that time.
    I had to come home, and my oldest sister,
    which they killed--
    she worked with my father in a textile factory.
    I had to take lunch for her.
    That time was dinner, but we ate lunch 1:00.
    So it had to be very hot, that lunch,
    and I had to go and take to the shop for her lunch five times
    a week after school.
    I threw down my briefcase, and I ran with the lunch.
    This I'll never forget.
    But my sister gave me $0.25, yeah.
    But she expected me to go with the trolley car,
    but I never went with the trolley car
    because I needed an ice cream.
    So I took the $0.25, and I had an ice cream.
    But she was the nicest person you ever could--
    I'll never forget that sister because I was the baby,
    and she was the oldest.
    Did you have any formal Jewish education?
    No.
    You said you came from a religiously observant family.
    Did you have a favorite holiday when you were a child?
    I was terribly afraid of Yom Kippur,
    but my favorite holiday was Passover.
    That was the time when I got new shoes and new clothes,
    and I was dressed from head to toe.
    And that was the nicest time.
    I'll never forget Passover at home,
    although I never stayed up for the Seder
    because it was much too late for me.
    But I remember the hustling and the bustling for Seder.
    What did you do for fun when you were not in school?
    I belonged to the organization.
    Mostly we met at Saturdays because at night I
    was not allowed to go out, after 10:00, after 9:00.
    And we was dancing Horahs and singing Hebrew songs,
    which I still remember.
    And that was nice, a nice group.
    What songs did you sing?
    Hava Nagila, all kind--
    off-hand I cannot remember, but very nice with the Horah.
    What did you do other than your time with the group?
    What did you individually do for fun or for relaxation
    in your free time?
    I was too young to do, really, anything.
    I played with the girls downstairs,
    and there was a lot Gentile people there.
    I played with them.
    I never encountered the Jew story.
    Before the war, did you have any idea what
    was going on in Germany with--
    No, no, no.
    I had no idea.
    I only know that 1939 we left Lodz.
    It was summer, and we went to our summer place.
    Like we go here to the mountain.
    And my father came with a horse and buggy
    and took us home before the time,
    and I was supposed to go to September to school,
    so I never went back.
    And they said that Poland is going to be in war.
    And I read what a war meant, but I didn't observe that much.
    Did you have any opportunity--
    you or your family have any opportunity--
    to speak to anybody who had fled from Germany before the war,
    any Jewish refugees or anybody who have
    been asked to leave Germany?
    Not that I know about it.
    Had you heard about Kristallnacht?
    Kristallnacht?
    No, I only heard after the war.
    In Berlin, you mean.
    Yeah, after the war I heard about it.
    When you did hear that war might be imminent
    or that there might be a war coming,
    how was that explained to you by the adults, your parents
    and other adults?
    Well, since my mother went through World War One,
    she was very much afraid of the war.
    We didn't observe that much, that we're
    going to be so much persecuted.
    We knew that Hitler doesn't like the Jews,
    that he was burning the synagogues in Germany,
    but it will never come to us this way, no.
    That was the only thing that I knew until Hitler came to us.
    Before we get to the beginning of the war,
    I want you to stop for just a minute.
    Is there anything about your childhood
    that you would like to talk about,
    any other memories, any experiences that stand out
    in your mind, special moments?
    The special moment was when I went with my mother
    to the synagogue to the shul.
    I'll never forget this.
    First of all, my father was a [? Kohen ?],,
    and I'll never forget that he was dressed in a white kittel,
    they call it.
    I was terribly afraid for that, terribly.
    Until today, when I go to shul and I see these kittels,
    I'm terribly afraid.
    I thought that he's going to die.
    I'll never forget this.
    Otherwise, the holidays in the house, that preparation
    for the holidays--
    my mother used to make her own wine--
    I'll never forget-- from cherries,
    and the other one was raisins.
    I helped a lot with that.
    Friday-- I'll never forget--
    I had to take the tshulnt to the oven.
    There was one bakery close to us,
    and I used to take the tshulnt to the oven.
    But Saturday I had to bring the tshulnt because Mama said,
    you took the tshulnt.
    You have to bring back the tshulnt.
    I'll never forget this.
    It was nice.
    It was nice.
    Then I'll never forget Paice.
    The dishes, the changing of the dishes, and the stove--
    I'll remember-- I speak boldly.
    I remember how she took the--
    she glued stones, and she put on the oven those glued stones.
    It should be Passover.
    I'll remember the matzahs.
    We used to put the matzahs in a big pillowcase, all
    the matzahs, and so many eggs, [YIDDISH] of eggs.
    It wasn't dozens, a [YIDDISH] is more than a dozen.
    And what else could I tell you?
    I was busy that time because I had
    to go with my mother to schlep all that
    and to help her, yes, because the other sisters were working.
    Tell me about your relationship with your sisters
    before the war.
    Since you were the youngest, what kinds of things
    did you and your sisters talk about and dream about
    for your future?
    They only wanted me--
    I was quite good in school.
    To be honest, my two older sisters never went to school.
    They were homebound.
    Like they would say today, they learned by themselves,
    and believe me, they learned so much.
    They were good mathematicians.
    I was really the only one, with my other sister,
    who went to school, regular public school.
    They wanted me to be only secretaries,
    and my older sister would bring--
    they only called me [YIDDISH] because I was the youngest.
    She brought me chocolate and always brought me something
    and always gave me money because she was the one who made money.
    Can you translate what you said in Yiddish
    with your sister called you?
    What was the word that you used?
    The [YIDDISH], the baby.
    That's all.
    I never had a name, probably.
    I only was called the baby.
    That's why when I called--
    this is my baby.
    I have two other children.
    Steve is my baby, and the only man--
    I say I don't know any other way because that's
    how I was raised.
    At the beginning of the war, what
    was your first indication that war had begun?
    The first indication was, before the Germans came into Poland--
    it took eight days for them to come into Poland.
    The war went on eight days or 10 days, something
    like that, until the Germans walked into Poland.
    Did you mean into your part of Poland?
    Yeah, in Lodz.
    But when they put on us the [NON-ENGLISH],,
    the yellow bands, then I couldn't accept it.
    Let's go back to your very first encounter with the Germans.
    Tell me about the Nazi invasion and your first glimpse
    of this war.
    Just happened that I lived on one
    side of the street where I lived.
    Across the street was one of the biggest and the most prominent
    built house in my time.
    I saw when they put the first foundation, [? Sulejmanowic ?]
    house.
    And when the Germans took over this house and I
    saw them for my window across the street--
    that was the first thing, and my mother always pushed me away
    from the windows.
    They shouldn't see me, and I shouldn't see them.
    That was the first awful, awful impression.
    And there was only soldiers.
    Officers were living in that house.
    They evacuated everybody, and they occupied that house.
    This I'll never forget.
    That was the most beautiful house in Lodz, that building.
    You mentioned the armbands.
    What other changes were imposed on the Jews
    when the Germans came in?
    The curfew.
    We had a curfew.
    We were not allowed to go out at dawn,
    and I wanted to go out to play.
    What do you mean they're not going to let me go out?
    I didn't do nothing.
    So my mother used to keep us at home.
    And then food shortage--
    we couldn't buy food, no, no.
    The stores were closed.
    The Jewish butchers were closed immediately,
    and my mother couldn't eat any other meat than kosher meat.
    So the hunger set in until a year later,
    1940, when they took us to Lodz Ghetto.
    We had to leave home.
    What were some of the changes that the Germans
    made with respect to the Poles?
    What changes were imposed on the Polish Christian population?
    Well, the Christian population, to compare--
    because I lived with Christians, as I mentioned before,
    in one house.
    They had the freedom.
    Hey could have went any place they wanted.
    We lost-- we didn't have it.
    I felt that the most because we little quite intelligent girls,
    and I couldn't see that.
    And they start to separate themselves from the Jews.
    I felt that in my own house where we lived.
    We didn't own a house.
    We lived in an apartment house, we lived in a rented apartment.
    They separated us from them right away.
    In fact, downstairs it was a drugstore.
    By us, downstairs, it was a drugstore.
    The Germans took everything out from that drugstore.
    I don't know if it belongs to a Jew.
    I cannot really say.
    So right away we couldn't get any food,
    although my mother used to prepare
    potatoes, and flour, and sugar.
    She prepared all that.
    But you couldn't go into the store and buy anything.
    We were afraid to walk because everybody recognized us.
    Even my own friends--
    I played with them in the backyard--
    they stood away from me like they wouldn't know me anymore.
    And I couldn't comprehend in my young girl mind what
    did I do, why, what did I do.
    Did your parents explain any of this to you?
    No.
    They didn't want to fright us, especially me.
    They didn't want to fright us.
    Maybe the older children--
    my oldest sister was married, and I
    remember going to her wedding.
    And she left home before Hitler came.
    She left Lodz before Hitler came.
    She had a family in Demblin, and she went to the family there.
    Over there she gave birth to a boy.
    We never saw that child, and know this from--
    but we knew after that they took her away with the child,
    probably to Auschwitz.
    We don't know.
    What else sticks out in your mind
    from the first few months of the war,
    before the formation of the ghetto?
    Is there anything else that you can think to mention that you--
    I could think that my father approached us.
    We should leave Poland to go to Russia, like many other people.
    But my mother says, if you want to--
    I'll never forget.
    If you want to go, go.
    He says, so give me at least Bella,
    not the youngest, the next, he says.
    I don't have any children to give to you.
    If you want to go, you go by yourself.
    So he never went.
    He came with us to the ghetto.
    This was the only thing that was a break in the family,
    but I know this, as a young girl, 13 years old, when
    I'm 14, that my mother said to my father, if he wants to go,
    he should go.
    She'll never go, and she won't give any children.
    Why didn't she want to go?
    She didn't believe the end could be like it was.
    Nobody did.
    Tell me, please, about the formation of the ghetto.
    I could tell you the way we went to the ghetto.
    You see on the television sometimes
    people going in other countries with the rucksacks,
    with the bags, with the things.
    We went to the ghetto.
    We occupied that sister's apartment
    in the ghetto, what she left from--
    when my father went, she left to Demblin.
    She left to another town.
    She had a family there.
    And we went to her house, so we were quite--
    had a nice apartment.
    And we left everything, and whatever my mother could--
    and at one time only we went.
    That's it.
    We didn't come back and forth to take this stuff.
    Several questions-- first, do you
    remember when you went to the ghetto?
    It was the end of '39 because 1940 they closed the ghetto,
    so it must have been the end of '39 when we went to the ghetto.
    Do you remember being notified that you
    had to move to this ghetto?
    We were notified from the building as much as I remember,
    that all the Jews have to empty out
    the building, and the Gentiles--
    they were left there.
    What was your family able to take with them?
    And also, what were you able to take with you?
    I had nothing, personal stuff, but I could tell you
    what my mother took.
    She took gold.
    I remember her sitting at night and sewing on--
    the [NON-ENGLISH] they were called--
    the gold, in belts.
    She took it with her to the ghetto.
    She took-- my father was in textile,
    and my father used to make shawls,
    those very heavy shawls.
    She took it with her in case we need something,
    so we'd be able to buy or to give it away.
    She took with her very little.
    Just the main thing by us was the pillows, and the covers,
    and the downy, and a few pictures, but that's about it.
    In fact, I have a picture from my mother.
    That's what she took.
    You mentioned that the ghetto was closed in 1940?
    Yeah.
    We weren't able to go out.
    Explain what you mean when you say the ghetto was closed.
    All of a sudden, the German soldiers or the Wehrmacht--
    I don't know who it was.
    They were around the ghetto, and nobody
    was able to go out from the ghetto
    or into the ghetto, nobody.
    In the ghetto, they were building a bypass
    because under the trolley cars were going
    and the cars, whatever it was there, the horse and buggies.
    And we were going through a bridge.
    I remember building that bridge because we lived
    right close to that bridge.
    I'll tell you what had happened if you're going to ask me
    what happened in the ghetto.
    That's what I remember.
    And I remember the rationing of the food.
    Of course, we didn't let my mother stay in the line.
    My sisters would.
    I became the strong one in the family because I figured,
    what they're going to do to a child?
    I mean, I wasn't a child anymore.
    By that time I was 14 years old.
    And I stayed in the line for food.
    Was there a physical fence, or a wall, or anything
    around the ghetto?
    It wasn't a fence, but wherever you went
    it was soldiers with guns.
    The ghetto was big.
    It wasn't as small.
    Lodz Ghetto was very big, included the cemetery
    out there and the--
    it was quite big.
    And then when they were building the bridge--
    so on one side it was soldiers, on the other side
    were soldiers.
    Look, there was smuggling in and out--
    I remember that-- but not to us.
    Were there people guarding the ghetto from the inside
    as well as from the outside?
    No, only from the outside until they formed--
    Rumkowski was the president, and then he formed your own police.
    They formed your own money.
    We had the ghetto money and the rationing,
    and they ghetto became a little country for itself.
    I worked in the ghetto.
    I want you to describe for me the conditions
    in the ghetto at the beginning, and then we'll
    go through some of the changes over the years.
    When you first arrived in the ghetto,
    describe for me the conditions in which
    you and the other Jewish families were living.
    Just fortunately that we took cover my sister's apartment,
    so we were a little lucky, but the conditions
    became unbearable in the wintertime.
    We had no clothing.
    We had no food.
    We had to go--
    that's how they forced us to go to work.
    We should get one soup a day at least.
    But my older sister, who was alive--
    she became very ill.
    Until today she has asthma.
    She had asthma, and she couldn't go to work.
    So my mother ordered us to bring [INAUDIBLE] soup for my sister.
    So when I went, I worked also in a [GERMAN]..
    Translate.
    A [GERMAN] means a shop where we were sewing.
    We were sewing uniform for the German army, uniforms
    for the German army, so we got a soup a day.
    Because I remember we had to bring something
    for that sick sister.
    She couldn't go to work.
    What about the other conditions in the ghetto at the beginning,
    things like sanitation and health care, everything?
    Well, one thing let me tell you, which I remember very vividly.
    There was a [NON-ENGLISH] in the ghetto--
    I don't know if you heard that word, [NON-ENGLISH]----
    that ordered the children--
    that ordered everybody to go out from their apartments.
    When was this?
    I would say 1942.
    I'm going to interrupt you and have you stay first in the very
    beginning, and we'll work our way through the [NON-ENGLISH]..
    Oh.
    In the very beginning, we stayed for that food.
    The conditions became unbearable because it was nothing to get.
    It was cold.
    The winters were very harsh winters in Lodz,
    and we had a very smart mother.
    She never allow us to stay in bed.
    We wanted to stay in bed, that we should be warm.
    She says, no, you must go out.
    You must work.
    You must wash yourself.
    Take the snow, and wash yourself.
    We had nothing, really to eat, that little things what
    we became.
    My mother smuggled in a little bit flour and sugar.
    This I remember.
    I was stealing potatoes.
    From whom?
    Across the street from where I lived.
    I don't know if I should give you
    the address for where I lived.
    [PLACE NAME] 14 was at one time a fire station,
    right across the street.
    That fire station was turned over,
    and they bought the food, potatoes, [INAUDIBLE],, carrots,
    whatever they bought.
    They were loaded up over there.
    And I was stealing.
    I went out, and my mother didn't say anything.
    I bought the potato, whatever we could.
    That's when I would steal.
    And this could be such a long process.
    It was bad.
    And I remember one thing also.
    I'll never forget.
    I said this to my children.
    Across the street, where that fire station was,
    when Rumkowski already became the president from the ghetto,
    the elders from the ghetto--
    we didn't call them president.
    And he called the whole ghetto over there, especially
    the parents, and he asked the parents
    to give up the children.
    I was in front of the--
    I see him now.
    And you know what he did before the war?
    He organized in Lodz a home for--
    a charity-- I don't know how you say
    it-- a home for the children who have
    no parents out of the Lodz.
    He was a philanthropist.
    How he could stay up there and say--
    first of all, he says, I'm giving up all my children.
    They're going to go to a good place.
    You just put on their names, what is their names,
    and their ages, and when the times will come,
    you bring down all the children.
    I disagreed with him.
    I cried.
    I said, mom, how could any parents give up the children?
    How could he give up the children?
    Then I said [INAUDIBLE].
    I started to believe it.
    My mother didn't [INAUDIBLE].
    She had to eat horse meat.
    She didn't want to eat horse meat,
    but that's all we got in the ghetto was
    a piece of horse meat.
    [?
    Then a doctor told her ?] God will forgive you if you eat
    horse meat.
    When I saw that my mother did this, that was the end.
    I couldn't believe I was seeing this.
    And that was the end, and I saw Rumkowski staying up there
    and tell the parents to give up the children
    with the names and the ages.
    Do you remember when it was when Rumkowski made
    that request of the parents?
    It was sometimes in '42.
    I don't remember dates now.
    It was 60 years ago.
    How old were you at the time when
    Rumkowski made that request?
    I must have been 15 years old already.
    And children of what age was he--
    Smaller children, small children.
    I remember when I see the parents bringing the children,
    like to a sheep, such a nice little boy.
    I see-- they gave away the children.
    We didn't know where they went, but now we
    know where they went.
    Let's pause, and you can collect yourself,
    and I will change the tape also.
    This is a continuation of an interview for the United States
    Holocaust Memorial Museum volunteer
    collection with Guta Jacobson.
    This is tape one, side B. And you were telling me
    about when the children were taken,
    when Rumkowski made the request to take the children.
    I'm going to ask you to take a step back and go back
    a little bit in time--
    Before?
    --before that and explain to me how
    things started to change in the ghetto
    when Rumkowski became the man in charge,
    if you could go through some of the changes from '40 into '41.
    We haven't touched on 1941 yet.
    One thing I remember, that the Germans called in my older
    sister to their office, and they ask her
    if she has a lot of gold, if she has a lot of jewelry,
    and she should bring everything.
    I have mentioned that her name wasn't Rogowitz.
    It was [INAUDIBLE].
    They probably knew that she had a family [INAUDIBLE]
    in Demblin, where she went during the war.
    They were quite wealthy people over there.
    She wasn't wealthy here, but my God, that was her second part.
    And my mother and we were staying by the window,
    and that was the end of everything.
    But she appeared.
    They just hit her.
    She had nothing to give to them, and they let her go.
    The only second thing I remember-- when they took away
    my mother from the group.
    But this is a big thing that I had to tell you.
    When was this?
    When there was a [NON-ENGLISH] in the ghetto.
    That's 1942?
    That was '42.
    Yeah, that was the second part of '42.
    This I remember.
    And then they said that everybody
    should leave the home, and we all went in front of the house
    and then took out all the elderly.
    She wasn't-- how old was she?
    By then she was-- of course, she didn't have her hair
    and make-up like now.
    She was thin already after the two years being in the ghetto.
    She tried to give everything to my father, to us.
    And my father, by that time, was away already.
    They took him away.
    When?
    Oh, yes, there's another thing I have to tell you.
    That was Passover, 1941, when they
    said all the strong men should register themselves, and come
    [PLACE NAME] there was a place in Lodz, [PLACE NAME]
    and the register to work.
    We're going to give them work.
    And my father-- it was Passover.
    He had nothing to eat.
    He was a very husky, very good-looking man.
    [INAUDIBLE]
    He was not such a [INAUDIBLE] tall, beautiful.
    And he went off to [INAUDIBLE] and they that took him away.
    I'll never, never forget this.
    My mother had a few potatoes with water, so she boiled this.
    And I went over there, and they allow me to give it to him.
    And they did took him to work.
    They didn't took him to Auschwitz.
    I don't think Auschwitz was by that time Auschwitz.
    I don't know what they do at Auschwitz.
    And they took him away.
    This I'll never forget.
    But shortly after that, maybe six months, maybe a year after,
    they took away my mother, but we saved my mother.
    How?
    How did we saved my mother?
    It's unbelievable even to say it.
    I mentioned that?
    No.
    There was one hospital in the Lodz Ghetto.
    I had two things with that hospital.
    I'm sure [INAUDIBLE].
    There was one hospital in the Lodz Ghetto
    where we had a nurse in that hospital,
    and we knew that nurse.
    And the screaming, the crying was when we came upstairs
    without my mother.
    They took them away in open wagons, the horse
    and buggies [INAUDIBLE] like the cows that [INAUDIBLE]..
    And they runned out not far from the hospital.
    We said to the nurse--
    I ran to the nurse because by us she was like a big doctor
    because she was a nurse.
    And she says, go to look for Mother.
    She knew my mother.
    She took her off that things, and she hid her.
    And next day she brought her over here.
    Would you believe it, that night,
    that scream what went on in that ghetto?
    Because I told you my mother was away.
    Everybody's mother was taken away,
    and we had the mother until we took her to Auschwitz.
    My mother was in Auschwitz, and I
    know when my mother was going to Auschwitz.
    I have [INAUDIBLE] with my mother.
    We took her 1944 to Auschwitz.
    Over there she was with us maybe two weeks in the barracks until
    Dr. Mengele make the rounds every morning,
    the [NON-ENGLISH].
    And he took out my mother.
    And that's all we could see.
    I'll get back to Auschwitz in a little while.
    I wanted to stay in the ghetto for more questions.
    But we saved my mother in the ghetto.
    We saved her, and we took her out.
    And there's one more thing I want
    to tell you about the ghetto.
    There was a time, 1943, when typhus was
    raging in the ghetto, typhoid.
    And my sister, Bella, my middle sister--
    she got a very high fever, and she had typhoid.
    And then we had to take her away from the house
    because this is a very contagious sickness.
    They took her to that hospital.
    We had that nurse in that hospital.
    When it became a little dark, this girl--
    I was maybe 15 years, maybe 15 and a half.
    I went through that bridge, walked to the hospital,
    took her out from the hospital with typhoid,
    with a very high, burning fever--
    that was the things they said in the height of typhoid.
    Somebody lived in the other side of the bridge.
    I hid her in that house, but they all were afraid
    because it was typhoid.
    But I hid her.
    I went home because my mother thought that they killed me,
    so I couldn't leave my mother already in that situation.
    I went home through that bridge with the soldiers downstairs
    dressed in white, in a uniform, and the nurse--
    they didn't do nothing to me.
    And I told my mother that I hid her here,
    and the next day I went, and I brought my sister back.
    And she recovered from the typhus.
    She's still alive.
    [INAUDIBLE]
    She's still alive.
    This I remember from the ghetto.
    Was that the story about the bridge
    that you wanted to tell me?
    Yes.
    Who ever thought that you could pass
    that bridge in the evening?
    But I had to go when it's dark because in the daytime
    it was even worse, and I went in that white uniform.
    How'd you get the white uniform?
    From that nurse.
    I remember her [INAUDIBLE].
    I wasn't afraid.
    I wasn't afraid in Auschwitz either.
    During your time in the ghetto, what
    did you know about what was happening outside the ghetto?
    Nothing.
    I had no knowledge that there is underground.
    I had no knowledge of these things.
    I had no knowledge that people were
    listening to radios and things.
    Later in the ghetto I heard about it--
    later, in Auschwitz, but in the ghetto I had no knowledge.
    When Jews came from smaller towns
    and were put in the ghetto, tell me
    what changes happened in the ghetto because
    of this influx of people and also what news
    came with these people when they came.
    Well, everybody had told they came from Głowno.
    From around Lodz they came into the ghetto.
    Everybody told how their parents were taken away, how
    the property was taken away.
    It was even worse because the hunger became
    more and more unbearable.
    We had to go to the shops because of the hunger.
    It was a little, maybe, warm in the shops than in the house.
    It was a terrible life, terrible life.
    Anybody could imagine what a ghetto is.
    I want you to imagine and use the words to explain to me
    what I would see if I were to walk
    on the streets of the ghetto in 1941 or '42.
    You would see people walking in daze, daze, hungry.
    If you would come in the wintertime,
    their feet were swollen.
    I saw these people sitting in front of their homes.
    If anybody would walk in, like you,
    and didn't know that you are in a ghetto, you would say,
    these are crazy people.
    They belong to crazy homes.
    They were not crazy.
    These people had no future.
    These people were waiting to die.
    They were praying to die.
    I saw them in the ghetto.
    They was taking them out to the cemetery from the streets.
    They were dying.
    I said, I'm not going to die.
    I have to see the destruction of Hitler,
    and then let them take me away.
    And that's how I survived.
    I did another thing.
    Every day when I--
    it was already springtime or summertime.
    When I left the shop, I went to the cemetery and got--
    [NON-ENGLISH], they called this.
    They would call this here spinach,
    but it was not spinach like here.
    It was that green thing that was grown there.
    It was not poison.
    My mother used to have a [INAUDIBLE],,
    and she cooked this.
    And she gave that to eat, not knowing
    that it had a lot, a lot of vitamin in it.
    And we ate this, and nobody went from my household,
    from my sisters and mother.
    I went every day from the shop into the [NON-ENGLISH]
    and brought a little things.
    But there were time in the wintertime when
    this didn't grow anymore, so we didn't have it.
    But soon the spring came.
    This grows in spring.
    I showed my children what this is.
    My daughter used to live in Wheaton,
    and I took her to the woods.
    And I showed her what this is.
    And even I showed her how you could survive in that woods
    because I wasn't [INAUDIBLE] how you survive in the woods.
    We'll get to that a little bit later.
    Were there Germans in the ghetto trying to maintain order
    or actually maintaining order?
    No, Jews maintained the order.
    Did Germans ever come in?
    I saw them from far away, walking around, watching us,
    but they were afraid to come into the ghetto.
    It was typhus.
    It was germs.
    It was death in the ghetto.
    I never really saw them except when I passed the bridge
    or when I saw them walking on the [INAUDIBLE]
    close to a big street that [INAUDIBLE]..
    You mentioned before [NON-ENGLISH],,
    and I asked you to wait until it was the appropriate time.
    Can you explain what [NON-ENGLISH] means,
    what the word means, and also explain the context?
    [NON-ENGLISH] means that-- in that day,
    nobody was allowed to be in this street, nobody.
    There was instant killing went the--
    that's when the Germans came around.
    Then was the time when they told us to go downstairs
    from the houses, and they went upstairs to look in the houses,
    if they would find somebody.
    We went down.
    That's when they took away my mother, when [INAUDIBLE]..
    Say, 8:00 at night, nobody was allowed
    to go out when they took away the children.
    Nobody.
    That's a [NON-ENGLISH].
    That's what I thought [NON-ENGLISH] were.
    That's what I could tell you.
    Tell me about the ghetto after the children were taken.
    The parents were walking around in the street.
    One was happy because my child will have something to eat.
    One said, they will have to kill them all.
    But the main thing-- the lies from my elders there,
    from Rumkowski.
    I couldn't take that.
    As stupid as I was and not educated, I couldn't take that.
    I knew that these children are not going to be alive.
    That was the [NON-ENGLISH].
    That was when they took away the children,
    and they showed he was the first one to give up.
    But we didn't go with the children in Warsaw.
    He went with the children.
    He also was in his position, and he went with the children.
    What was his name?
    It was--
    Let's stay in Lodz.
    I don't remember [INAUDIBLE].
    Did the people, including yourself,
    have any idea about the camps, Chelmno and Auschwitz?
    No, no, no, no.
    When they had the idea--
    and it came to me, the idea, so I
    figured, if it came to me, the idea,
    everybody else must have it.
    When the wagons came back from Auschwitz--
    not everybody went at one time--
    people left notes in these wagons not to come,
    that this is destructive, that they're burning the people,
    they're taking away the people.
    Some people didn't want to believe.
    I believed, but I had no choice because, look,
    my husband was in the ghetto from the 500 from the people.
    He was my husband at that time.
    I met him after the war.
    He didn't go to Auschwitz.
    You're jumping ahead of me again.
    You're talking about the people who were left behind
    in the ghetto for the cleanup.
    You're jumping ahead of me.
    You had said that Rumkowski was similar to--
    he was a philanthropist, and he had run an orphanage,
    like Janusz Korczak.
    When you said he was going to give up
    his children-- you said this twice,
    and I just would like you to clarify, at this point,
    who was he referring to when he said "his children"?
    Well, he was running before the war [NON-ENGLISH]..
    An orphanage?
    An orphanage home, and he was a philanthropist.
    Rich people gave money to that.
    That was only Jewish people.
    Did he--
    He gave this up.
    Did he give up anybody from his family?
    He had no children.
    I don't know if he gave up his--
    he had a wife, but he had no children.
    One of his children in the [NON-ENGLISH] was
    my brother-in-law, Leo Jakubowicz.
    He has that exhibit in--
    that was his child, but he wasn't a child anymore.
    You have to explain what you were just
    talking about with respect to an exhibit.
    Look, my brother-in-law, Leo--
    you said you know him.
    He has the exhibit here in Washington.
    You need to explain that for the interview
    because people who are listening don't understand
    what you're referring to.
    All right.
    He was one of Rumkowski's children in Lodz
    but years back because his mother became
    a widow with three children.
    She couldn't support the children,
    so Leon went to Rumkowski's--
    to his children.
    And the younger brother was left with the mother.
    The little brother was left with the mother,
    and the younger brother, which was my husband, Jakub--
    he was left with that family.
    But we're not talking about this.
    We're talking about Leo.
    When Leo came to ghetto, he was one of Rumkowski's children.
    Rumkowski knew him very well, but he was not
    a child which was that baby.
    He was already a grown-up man by that time.
    But he was with Rumkowski.
    Now, you made reference to the exhibit,
    so you might as well explain now what the exhibit is
    that is now currently in the Holocaust Museum in Washington,
    DC.
    Since this man was very, very talented,
    you know what he did in the Lodz ghetto, this man?
    He was not my brother-in-law at that time.
    I wasn't married.
    He formed a kitchen, and the people who work for the Germans
    and who are [INAUDIBLE]--
    they had eight days in that kitchen,
    and he was the head from that kitchen.
    He also developed, with help from plumbers
    I think, a dishwasher in that kitchen, which was unheard of.
    He was also the head from the mennica.
    You know what mennica is, where they make money in Washington?
    How you call that?
    The Mint, the printing.
    Yeah, the Mint print.
    He was the head of the--
    because he was Rumkowski's child.
    He knew Rumkowski.
    What he did for Rumkowski--
    he did the whole sketch from the ghetto.
    Look at it today.
    Picture-- this is in miniature.
    You could close it off, and it's like a violin, a big violin.
    It's around the Jewish star we were wearing.
    He went from one--
    he has all the money.
    He has all the original signatures from the resort,
    from the shops.
    All over the ghetto is there.
    You have the police.
    You have the--
    I could even show you where I lived.
    Every house is in miniature, and the streets,
    and the cemetery, and everything what
    was in the ghetto it is there in miniature.
    This was made for Rumkowski.
    You got the bread, another bread, Leo [NON-ENGLISH]..
    He never gave it to Rumkowski because he always said,
    it's not finished.
    So you could find where the Germans were,
    where I lived, where you lived, where
    everybody lived you could find.
    That bridge you're going to see.
    That's very important to me because what
    I went through with the bridge.
    That's important.
    You could find this.
    So now you're going to ask me--
    he went to Auschwitz.
    Why he didn't took this with him to Auschwitz,
    you probably will ask me.
    Everybody took everything, and this is such a valuable thing.
    That man probably knew he was--
    I didn't know him, and I knew my husband at that time.
    He probably knew that he was going.
    He came one transport before Rumkowski to Auschwitz.
    He left it in his house--
    listen-- with a big sign, open--
    he didn't hide it--
    whoever find this, it's very valuable.
    Give this to authorities, to higher authorities.
    Being that my husband was left in the ghetto with the 500
    people, he went to his house, and he saved this.
    When Leo came back-- it was fortunate that he did came back
    from Auschwitz--
    he gave it back.
    And we wanted this to go to Yad Vashem.
    My husband had a big [INAUDIBLE],,
    very big [INAUDIBLE],, and finally he
    gave it to this museum.
    So this is currently part of the permanent exhibition?
    Yeah, those are, yeah.
    But you could see everything there,
    every little money what we had, every little house,
    every little shop, everything.
    Every street you could see there.
    That's very valuable.
    Now, after that, he became my brother-in-law.
    I wanted to ask you to reflect back
    on when the deportations to the camps began,
    your first recollections of people being deported out
    to what you now know was Auschwitz.
    My mother-- then we had a little idea that we going,
    but they told us--
    they even gave us bread when we went on the--
    I went very late.
    We were hiding, too.
    In the ghetto we were hiding.
    My mother was hiding, but at the end she couldn't hide anymore.
    You need to explain how you were hiding and where,
    if you could describe the circumstances.
    In the home, in the homes.
    We were hiding in our home.
    In the attic we were hiding.
    But everything was empty already.
    First they took us with the shops.
    Then that took us the leftovers until we went to the trains.
    What can I tell you?
    That's how we went.
    We went very late to the trains.
    And then it was empty.
    We didn't even believe that-- after the war,
    I found out that there was 500 left there.
    We didn't know that.
    When were you sent out of the Lodz Ghetto?
    The end of '44, in October, in August or October,
    in '44, the end of '44, not even the end [INAUDIBLE]..
    I have to show you.
    Come close.
    OK, you want to pause and show me something.
    Yes.
    OK, I think that we've established that you went when?
    In August '44.
    How were you notified that you would be going?
    The Jewish people, the police, and everybody
    were looking all over if there's nobody hurt and everything.
    We had no more food, so we decided that this time we're
    going to go.
    We took all our possessions.
    My mother was sewing that gold.
    I'll never forget this.
    And we went.
    Not knowingly.
    So you said you took your possessions.
    What possessions did you still own at this time?
    We only owned the gold, and clothes, and then watches,
    and whatever we owned.
    In fact, I was very mad that my mother didn't give this away.
    We should have food.
    We would get very mad.
    But that's what it was.
    Did you ask her why she didn't sell these--
    No, no, no.
    No, she was my mother.
    During your time in the ghetto, did you
    have any idea about what was happening in the Warsaw Ghetto?
    No.
    We had family into Warsaw Ghetto.
    My mother had a sister in the Warsaw Ghetto,
    and I had cousins in the Warsaw ghetto.
    We didn't know nothing.
    Did you have any idea what was going on
    with respect to the war effort?
    No, no.
    To the best of your knowledge, do you
    know anybody who escaped from the ghetto
    and survived that way?
    I'm going to tell you something.
    I know who escaped from the ghetto.
    I had a very, very religious girl friend, very
    Hasidic father.
    Her sister went out with a Polish soldier.
    He stole her from the ghetto.
    He took her away.
    Notice that when I came back that she was alive.
    She was the one who smuggled into the family food.
    We went over, and she gave us, and she
    smuggled into the family--
    and she was alive.
    She I know, but with the help from a Polish soldier
    because he fell in love with her.
    And religious or no religious-- in fact,
    I remembered that there was a [INAUDIBLE]..
    Before I let you leave the ghetto,
    I want you to stop and think for a moment
    if there's anything else that you want to tell me
    about your years in the ghetto.
    Again, you were in the ghetto from--
    '40 to '44.
    Is there anything else that stands out in your mind?
    Certainly you had many, many experiences during those years,
    but anything you want to add?
    Nothing special.
    The only thing-- towards the end, in the shop,
    I was chosen--
    when a garment came down from upstairs, we were chosen by--
    three girls.
    And we had to put our initials, that we look at the garments,
    that it was no sabotage, like a button wasn't missing
    or one arm was left.
    And my mother was terribly afraid
    that I had to put my initial on these garments,
    but I was chosen.
    I couldn't say no.
    That was very vivid to me, and I was terribly
    afraid to go to the shop.
    But that's what I did.
    Had there been many acts of sabotage like this?
    Yes, there was, not when I looked at the government
    and went through my--
    If you found a government that had been sabotaged,
    what steps did you take?
    I put my mind to it.
    I would not let it go through because it
    wouldn't be only my life but who knows how much they would--
    who did it, what hands they went through.
    You said that you had been in hiding,
    and then you decided to just go?
    That's in the ghetto?
    Right.
    Oh, I didn't decide it.
    My mother decided.
    You collectively-- I'm sorry.
    I should--
    We all went.
    We went.
    Tell me about what happened from the time you left.
    Your mother decided to go.
    Tell me about how you were collected and organized
    the transport.
    We left the hidings.
    We went to the [PLACE NAME].
    It was the things, and they were very nice to us.
    They gave us bread.
    They took us out with the trains--
    to the big trains, and we were shoved
    on the trains like cattles.
    And we were going to Auschwitz, about 24 hours riding
    that train, until we saw [? arbeitslager ?]..
    So it wasn't so bad.
    What were used to work.
    I was [INAUDIBLE] in the ghetto.
    But we personally really didn't know what's
    Auschwitz or the other camps.
    When you arrived in Auschwitz, what
    were your first impressions?
    I want you to think about what you could see,
    what you could smell, what you could hear.
    What were your impressions?
    My impression was when they told us to undress, give everything
    away, and shave our heads--
    my head wasn't shaved--
    shaved our heads.
    I figured, now they look like crazy people.
    They shaved my mother's head.
    They looked like crazy people.
    So we're now in a crazy house.
    And then they said, links, right, left and right,
    and to us they says, you go left, you go left,
    to me and to my sisters, and we schleped my mother into the--
    he turned over, and we [INAUDIBLE]..
    So we took her to the [INAUDIBLE]..
    Then they give us a shower.
    So I was terribly afraid of that shower.
    They gave us something to dress, shoes, long shoes, big shoes.
    And they took us to a barrack.
    What I encountered in that barrack--
    it was unbelievable.
    There was a dark woman, and she wasn't a German woman,
    and she told us where we are, what is there to expect,
    and we should listen to her, otherwise we're
    going to die right away.
    And I figured, this is a Jewish girl.
    And we were laying on the floors, [INAUDIBLE]..
    That was Auschwitz.
    I'm going to pause to change the tape.
    Just one moment.
    This is a continuation of an interview for the United States
    Holocaust Memorial Museum volunteer collection.
    We are interviewing Guta Jacobson.
    This is tape two, side A. And you
    were telling me about Auschwitz, your first hours in Auschwitz.
    And I wanted to ask you how long it
    took before you realized what was going on in this place?
    No.
    I knew that I am in a crazy house.
    Because I saw people sitting without motion,
    without any hair.
    No matter how beautiful you are, no matter
    how young you are, when they shave your hair,
    they give you no clothes.
    Those [NON-ENGLISH].
    So no, I figured that's the end.
    [? We're ?] in a crazy house.
    I didn't figure we came to [? work ?] no more.
    You said that somebody in the barrack
    told you what to expect.
    What was it that they told you?
    Well, they said that there'd be [? cell ?]
    Appells every morning.
    That we should obey.
    We shouldn't hide.
    We'll be very hungry.
    And who won't be able to withstand,
    they're going to be gassed.
    I didn't even know what that means,
    they're going to be gassed.
    So I figured, OK, they're going to be killed.
    And that was the first things we came into that barrack,
    the first greeting.
    That was a young girl.
    Running around was such a long thing.
    She was running from one place to the other all day to obey.
    If we'll get food, it's good.
    We have to go--
    it's going to be a kibel outside.
    We cannot go to the bathroom.
    It's going to be a kibel that meets a pen outside.
    We could go outside to the bathroom and come in back.
    I didn't know what to think.
    We cried.
    But we were happy mother is with us.
    That was my first impression.
    That we're in a crazy house.
    Plain crazy house.
    And among them, we're going to be dead.
    You said there was a long thing.
    You mean inside the barrack?
    Inside the barracks was like a long--
    I don't know what it was.
    Was it-- were their chimneys in the barrack?
    Chimneys, yeah.
    That long thing.
    And she was running from one place to the other,
    from one place to the other.
    So I figured we're all crazy.
    She's crazy too.
    That's all.
    What else do you remember about your first day or days
    in Auschwitz?
    [? Cell ?] appell.
    Explain what that means.
    We had to go out at dawn.
    When it was winter, I was quite a long time [? there ?]..
    When it was winter, the climate in Auschwitz is lime.
    You know what lime is?
    When you put your foot in the lime,
    you cannot take out the foot.
    That was the climate.
    It was very cold.
    We had to all get out, and he was counting.
    And if it didn't count what it was yesterday,
    they were looking all over if somebody
    didn't hide themselves.
    Sometimes we stayed there for two hours.
    I remember very well Dr. Mengele.
    I saw him every morning.
    I could recognize him in my sleep.
    Now he's dead already, but I could recognize--
    good-looking guy.
    How did you know it was Dr. Mengele and not somebody else?
    Well, then we heard, this is Dr. Mengele.
    Dr. Mengele is coming.
    So I figured this is the Dr. Mengele-- extremely
    good-looking guy, very good looking.
    He was wearing a uniform and a dog,
    and he was coming with the other ones, with a stick.
    I'll never forget it.
    He took away my mother.
    When he took away your mother, you said a few months ago,
    you said you were there about two weeks
    before they took her away?
    Two or three weeks it was, yeah-- more than two weeks.
    Three weeks, probably-- yes.
    By then, did you know where she would be going?
    Yes, exactly.
    When did you come to realize?
    As I said, when did you become to realize what was really
    happening in the town?
    Right next day from Auschwitz.
    What is gas?
    What do you mean they're going to gas people?
    You know, so curiosity, and then I realized.
    I had one encounter in Auschwitz.
    They were taking away, taking away.
    Then companies came and took people to work from Auschwitz.
    We were told that they need 200 people, 100 girls, to work.
    And we didn't have the mother anymore.
    I have a very, very good-looking sister.
    She's in California now-- very, very ill, very.
    So me and my sister, we left the other sister in the barrack.
    We went.
    I say, let's go to work.
    Enough Auschwitz.
    We're going to get killed here anyway.
    So let's go to work.
    Worse than here cannot be.
    So what do you think we will find out?
    In the crematorium.
    Do you believe it?
    Right away, we were in the crematorium.
    You had to go in by number.
    If they needed 100, they didn't took 101.
    So I don't know how much they needed that day.
    Was it 100, or was it more?
    I don't know.
    So we were staying outside.
    And we asked the guy, the German guy in German,
    where are we going?
    He showed us we're going to the-- this is the crematorium.
    He took out my sister right away.
    She started to terrible cry, and she pulled me to her.
    All the rest went to the crematorium.
    Four of us went back to the barracks--
    four of us.
    We were staying there.
    They didn't know what to do with us.
    And one came over.
    He says, [GERMAN].
    We should run.
    So we went back to the barracks.
    Nobody stopped us.
    We came back.
    My sister was there.
    So from two barracks, there make one barrack.
    They took people from the other.
    So we came back to the barracks until we all
    went to work a few weeks later.
    But I was in front of the crematorium.
    I knew it when I there, because they picked out
    such a nice girls, little, nice girls from Ukraine,
    from Czechoslovakia.
    So we're going to work, but we didn't.
    The other women that were with you in the barrack
    were from different countries.
    Did you, when you were in the barracks together,
    talk about your lives before the war?
    I was, towards the end, I was a lot with Ukrainian--
    with the Hungarian girls.
    I was afraid to talk.
    I remember always going behind the barracks
    and sit like the other one was sitting--
    like this.
    That's when I came in.
    That's what they saw.
    Then I saw myself.
    And I figured, God, give me strength.
    I need to see Hitler's destruction?
    Then take me away.
    That's how I prayed.
    Then one day they came.
    They needed 1,000 women.
    But this, I saw a little different,
    because it was civilians came, too, not only the Germans.
    They said they need 1,000 women to go to work.
    And all three of us-- we didn't leave my sister anymore--
    all three of us [YIDDISH] to this transport.
    And we went out from Auschwitz.
    I'm going to ask you to translate what you just
    said in Yiddish.
    We didn't-- what did I say?
    That we didn't leave my sister behind.
    We took her with us.
    She was the oldest, and she was sick.
    She was sick in the ghetto already.
    And we went to work.
    They took us out from Auschwitz.
    Because we saw the same way we came arbeitslager, we went out.
    Before I let you leave Auschwitz,
    I want to ask you a couple of clarifying questions.
    Your barrack, what was it made of?
    You mentioned that there were two chimneys inside--
    Yeah.
    --and a long thing.
    What was the building itself made of?
    Wood-- made of wood.
    And we were sleeping on the floors.
    It was made of wood.
    But the only thing, that long thing,
    was the chimney, that long thing where she was working back
    and forth-- a stick of wood.
    It was very cold in the wintertime.
    You know what I did once in Auschwitz?
    And the Germans, that time, I saw the Germans watching.
    No, I'm sorry.
    It wasn't Auschwitz.
    We'll save it for later, then.
    While you were in Auschwitz, did you
    have any idea how the war was going for Germany?
    We heard rumors that the Germans losing in Stalingrad.
    They froze in Stalingrad.
    So, look, it was only rumors.
    Who knew?
    The only thing, that some girls of ours--
    I was not among them.
    Otherwise, I wouldn't be ashamed to say it,
    because you do everything for food and maybe if you survive.
    I wasn't among them.
    Polacks were working there--
    c
    That was Auschwitz.
    Auschwitz was a town.
    And the girls, maybe they lived with them.
    I don't know.
    Nobody revealed it.
    The only thing I know, they brought some food back
    from the Polacks.
    That was the rumors.
    So they probably knew from the Polacks.
    Polish people were working around there.
    While you were in Auschwitz, did you
    witness beatings, executions, or suicides?
    Yes.
    I came with a girlfriend from Lodz.
    You must hear that.
    I came with a girlfriend from the Lodz.
    Her father was a banker in Lodz.
    I always admired her, because I came to her house.
    We weren't that rich.
    She always had such beautiful clothes and such nice food.
    I met her in Auschwitz.
    She was the one who went on the barbed wires.
    She got killed.
    She committed suicide in Auschwitz,
    because she came from a luxury.
    But ours was a luxury.
    Here, it wouldn't be called a luxury, but this was a luxury.
    She committed suicide.
    People did commit suicide, yes.
    Before I have you leaving Auschwitz,
    is there anything else that stands out in your mind about--
    About Auschwitz?
    Yes.
    How cruel the Germans could have been at first Yom Kippur.
    It was a holiday.
    That's a day before when my mother was taken away.
    That's why I have here with her.
    I have [INAUDIBLE] took her away.
    I have no [INAUDIBLE],, but I figured it out.
    It's the same day.
    We had [? kibble, ?] or [? kibble ?] I say.
    You know what [? kibble-- ?] what it is?
    A big-- a garbage pail, a big garbage pail,
    like you throw out a garbage.
    So it was clean.
    And the soups were all over the outside from the barracks.
    You could of ran and get yourself as much as you wanted.
    You know why?
    Because it was Yom Kippur.
    They wanted you to eat Yom Kippur.
    And there was a lot of food, because they took away
    a day before a lot of people from the barracks.
    This, I'll never forget.
    It was so much food.
    But if you were smart, you didn't eat.
    It wasn't pleasant food, but being that your stomach is not
    used to that.
    I was so skinny.
    I didn't eat anyway.
    So whenever I had a little bit, I had enough.
    This is outstanding.
    When did you leave Auschwitz?
    I left Auschwitz--
    I really don't remember exactly when I left Auschwitz.
    But when I left Auschwitz for that transport,
    I went to Birnbäumel.
    This is a town.
    [CRASH]
    I have no idea what that noise was.
    Please continue.
    Please don't worry.
    This is a town in Germany that took
    us to devote to make okopas.
    You know what okopas?
    When a tank goes through, it should fall through, you know?
    So like a trench?
    A trenches, yeah, but this was for military.
    We were 1,000 women, and we would shovel the trenches
    until here in water.
    Let me just clarify one thing, and then we'll
    get to this next camp--
    Yes.
    --and the work that you did.
    I asked you when you had left Auschwitz.
    It was after Yom Kippur.
    Was it very long after Yom Kippur,
    or do you remember this season?
    I left Auschwitz.
    I cannot tell you exactly the date.
    I had it written down some place at home.
    But when I left I Auschwitz, it was almost empty.
    Either they had killed the people,
    or they took out the people.
    It was almost.
    I would say in my barrack was empty.
    We went almost towards the end, because we knew.
    We were afraid.
    We didn't trust them that they're
    going to take us to work, because what there already
    once.
    And there was nothing to stay anymore,
    because it was almost empty.
    So we left.
    Do you happen to remember what the weather was?
    Was there snow?
    It was very wintry.
    Because when we came to that food, it was winter.
    When you left Auschwitz, how were you
    transported to the other camp?
    With the trains.
    We went with trains.
    And then they took us, 1,000-- there were 2,000 women.
    1,000 women, they took another place, and 1,000 women,
    we were together-- with the Czechs, with the Hungarian,
    with the Polish girls.
    But by that time, when we went to the camp,
    they gave us over there to--
    they dressed us.
    They gave us food.
    We worked there.
    And we were-- from the barracks, we worked.
    And during the-- in the morning, where we worked,
    the people who lived there, the German people, came out.
    One, they came out with a piece of bread.
    One, they came out with a cigarette.
    One came out with a potato.
    They did came out.
    The only thing, when we left that working place
    to go to Bergen-Belsen, that place was empty already.
    No Germans, nobody, was there.
    Tell me about the physical camp, what it looked like,
    and what the barracks were like.
    Describe the camp for me, please.
    The working camps you're talking now about?
    The second camp where you worked.
    The second camp.
    Well, the second camp was better than Auschwitz.
    We had the women watching us, the SS women.
    There were very bad, very bad.
    You know what I did in order to please you?
    I worked nice with my hands.
    And the water was [NON-ENGLISH],, such a green things.
    I opened up that green things an inside was such a white--
    like a-- I don't know how to describe.
    And I made little flowers for the German girls.
    And I asked them to put lipstick on it,
    and it was I gave everybody a flower, you know?
    So they had me already in mind at one time.
    But we were watched a lot from the German, from the Wehrmacht.
    It was not the SS anymore.
    It was the Wehrmacht.
    So I personally would go out, and it was snow.
    And I would dress myself to the hip.
    I didn't even see it in the back of me.
    And I washed myself with the snow.
    And at one time, he approached me.
    He says, [GERMAN].
    So I was such afraid, because I was half naked.
    He say, [GERMAN].
    Do this every day.
    So you're going to be warm this way.
    He didn't do nothing to me, but he had me on his eye.
    At one time, he threw a piece of bread for me,
    but that was never.
    But it was not that bad.
    It's just the water.
    What we were-- [INAUDIBLE].
    We were-- we wanted the water.
    We were cutting the trees in the woods.
    And then when the tanks are going to come,
    they should go into the water.
    You know what?
    The Wehrmacht saved themselves like this.
    They took us to work.
    And this way, they saved their lives,
    because they didn't go to the front.
    They didn't go to the army.
    That was my opinion, but I didn't say it.
    Over there, I got hit.
    They broke three teeth, my teeth.
    Because I saw that--
    I had, as I mentioned, I had a very good-looking sister--
    extremely good-looking.
    She's now very sick.
    One Wehrmacht, one guy, gave her cigarettes, food.
    It was Christmas.
    She got a whole package from him.
    The girl squealed on her, and they brought me
    into the office.
    And they wanted me to see, the tell, which one did it
    and what.
    I said, she found it on the floor.
    Somebody threw it in the tanks, and she picked it up.
    I wouldn't tell which one did it.
    So he gave me one shot in the--
    in fact, the German pay for my teeth.
    And that's when I got hit.
    And then we went out from there.
    Tell me about the living conditions in this camp.
    This camp was a lot better, as I mentioned, than Auschwitz camp.
    Because we got a little food.
    They took some of our girls into the kitchen.
    They worked in the kitchen.
    But outstanding was a lady from Czechoslovakia.
    She knew how to type in German.
    They needed her in the office, because all these German SS,
    nobody knew how to type.
    She was treated like a diamond, and I'll tell you
    what we did with her when--
    I'm going to go out from this place.
    I'll tell you something.
    And she was very good with me.
    She saw me, how they hit me, and she was very good
    with my sister.
    So she brought us whatever was left over there.
    Like I would go into the woods, and I was--
    I knew, being that I was living in Poland.
    At one time, I lived in a small town in Poland.
    I went to the woods, and I knew all the pilze.
    You know what pilze?
    Mushrooms.
    I knew which mushroom is poison, and I
    knew which mushroom was good.
    Because I was--
    I brought the mushrooms.
    They sent me to the woods, the German, the SS ladies,
    and I brought them mushrooms, mostly for Sundays.
    They had mushrooms with eggs.
    So I knew every mushroom.
    That's what I say.
    I taught my daughter how to survive in the woods,
    because mushrooms could be very dangerous.
    So she got all the mushrooms that
    was leftover, that girl from Czechoslovakia,
    and they were told that she should give me these mushrooms.
    That was so delicious.
    That was the biggest delicacy in five years I ate.
    But mushrooms, real mushrooms, not these cultivated mushrooms,
    what we have here.
    That was good, yeah.
    You said you had lived in a small town.
    When was this?
    Before, when I was a little girl.
    My father used to work in a small town before Lodz.
    I was born in Lodz.
    Then we went out.
    His boss moved to Constantine, and soon later, we
    moved back to Lodz.
    So I don't pay attention to that.
    How long were you in this--
    the second camp?
    In the second camp, it was still June, December.
    December.
    I was there by June, September, October, November.
    November and December, I was there in the woods.
    I was good two month, five weeks,
    there until that was close to 45.
    And they took us out.
    The Germans were afraid of themselves.
    But we also had a little hospital in that camp.
    It was a room where when we got sick, we went into the door.
    And that girl--
    I don't remember her name--
    good-looking girl from Czechoslovakia--
    she took very ill.
    And she was in that--
    how you called this, infirmary?
    Oh, yes, I got it--
    like a room, an infirmary.
    So I went to see her once.
    When we left this camp, the infirmary,
    they didn't touch it.
    Nobody left the infirmary.
    They left behind two soldiers, the Wehrmacht.
    All the rest went with us to kill them.
    None of them got killed.
    Only that girl, they took her out,
    and we had to carry her on that things,
    because they knew what they're going
    to do with the other girls.
    But nobody got killed, because they had to run away,
    because Russia was already approaching.
    As we went, they went with us, the Germans.
    The Russians were approaching, and we left.
    We went.
    At one night, we stopped.
    It was almost empty, the town, a town, a woods, some place.
    And they took me, and my sister, and other--
    no.
    One more thing I have to tell you.
    As we were walking-- put on that tape.
    That's very important.
    As we were walking, it was no more
    1,000, because it was left in that infirmary,
    a nice, few people.
    Whoever was in the back, the Germans
    took them out to the woods and shot them--
    whoever didn't meet the front--
    and shot them.
    I saw it.
    And that girl we were still carrying,
    they didn't shoot her.
    That's what a German is.
    They needed her.
    So this, I couldn't--
    so when we stopped in that town, and we were--
    there was leftovers-- the potatoes there, and carrots,
    and all that.
    We were making a fire.
    We were making the potatoes.
    And not far from there was a lake, a deep lake.
    When we're going to pass that lake,
    they're going to go to Bergen-Belsen.
    But our girls, they dumped in the lake,
    all of them that didn't live to go to Bergen-Belsen.
    That 1,000-- we went out from Auschwitz 2,000.
    The first thousand, nobody lived.
    The all killed them in that lake.
    They didn't kill them with the guns.
    They killed them now, our girls.
    I went out.
    When we went out to make the food for the people,
    we hid my sister, because she couldn't go out.
    She was sick already.
    Me and my sister, there is another girl--
    we were five girls--
    we went into the woods to a hiding place.
    We didn't go with them next day no more.
    My sister stayed back in that camp, and they found my sister.
    They beat her so much, but they still--
    they were worried about their own life.
    She went to Bergen-Belsen.
    They beat her, because she should give out
    where are the two sisters.
    She just said the right thing.
    They left, and she doesn't know where they are.
    We went to the woods.
    It was a hunting place.
    They were hunting there, but there was nobody hunting there,
    and it was like a shack.
    And we stayed in that shack 48 hours,
    till nobody was there already.
    The whole transport left.
    We went out looking for my sister,
    but we says we're not going to go back.
    Whatever happens to her happens.
    And we went out, and we opened up
    a house where nobody was there.
    Everybody was evacuated, because the Russian was coming.
    And we were in luxury--
    in luxury.
    There was so many preserved.
    There was so much food in the house.
    All the Germans had left.
    Now, listen, what you do, you have to go out.
    We went out as peasants.
    Somebody's there.
    That's fine.
    Please continue.
    We went out as peasants next day.
    We slept in a bed.
    Nobody was there.
    We went out as peasants, and there were cows going around.
    We wanted to show them what it means, you know?
    We're working.
    We're Polacks.
    We're not Jews.
    We're Polacks.
    I spoke very good Polish.
    My sister spoke a perfect Polish.
    And we start to milk a bull.
    She took a bucket.
    And she was the older than me, and she started--
    and a guy came over, a Polish guy,
    who was left to watch this.
    And he says-- he knew German.
    [GERMAN]
    So we says, we're going to milk the--
    he says, this is not a cow.
    This is a bull.
    We say, oh, we did not know.
    He says, who you are?
    I says, I'm a Polish.
    [POLISH] It's not far from Lodz.
    We knew the place he was.
    You have to translate all of this.
    Yeah.
    From where you are?
    From Poland.
    He says, what are you doing here?
    We says, we're Polish girls.
    We were working here in another town, and nobody's there.
    So we start to walk, and that's where we wound out, right here.
    He says, you could have got killed,
    because this wasn't a cow.
    This was a bull.
    My kids know about that, because I always say.
    [LAUGHS] I talked about it after the war.
    And no sooner then we were afraid of this guy.
    I said to my sister, we're going to leave.
    We're going to go further into the woods.
    No sooner we went to the woods, another two days,
    we saw soldiers.
    That was the Russian soldiers.
    And you know what?
    We met a Jewish officer.
    And he says, you know what they're going
    to do to you, Jewish or Polish?
    We told them that we're Jews.
    We ran away with this transport.
    We told them where they should go to look for the people.
    And he took us.
    He left the whole--
    he took us with his van, a wagon with horses, to a place,
    and he put us in to a trolley car.
    And he says, you go out with the trolley cars as far as you go,
    and you go back home.
    You go back to Poland.
    Because this was February.
    And in May, Lodz was liberated.
    And it took us so long till we came to Lodz back.
    It was liberated already--
    the two of us.
    And the third, my sister went to Bergen-Belsen.
    And how they didn't kill her, because they were--
    and you know what?
    On the way, we met the German soldier who we knew.
    He recognized us.
    He begged us, we should hide him.
    Yeah.
    So I said to my sister, look, we cannot hide you,
    but we're not going to give you out neither.
    He was the Wehrmacht.
    He wasn't the SS.
    Throw away your gun.
    Throw away your uniform.
    Go into a German house.
    Get dressed, and go whenever you want to go.
    He didn't kill, and we give him up.
    So the Russian soldiers had warned you
    that something was going to happen to you.
    What warning did he give you?
    They're going to rape us.
    That's the biggest warning.
    They're going to-- they wouldn't case us.
    These are soldiers.
    They had know they raped all the German girls
    on the way, whoever they met.
    They're going to do this to you, too.
    So when we find out that this is a Jewish boy,
    it's like a heaven, and he saved us from the Russians.
    He took us away from the whole Russian--
    it was like a regiment.
    I don't know how you call it--
    away, away from that regiment.
    And then we found ourselves with the Polacks.
    So we speak Polish.
    We did reveal that we are--
    as I said, in Auschwitz, I had saved
    my hair and my sister's hair.
    So we didn't look so bad.
    Don't ask me how I saved my hair.
    What were you wearing?
    What was I wearing?
    When you made your escape, when you were hiding,
    what were you wearing?
    Oh.
    We had to throw off the things from the camp.
    We were naked.
    We were almost naked in the winter.
    But at night when it was dark, we went to the town,
    and we were stealing.
    And we came back, and that's how we were--
    and the third or the fourth night,
    we were now ready to sleep in their homes.
    That's where my sister was milking the bull.
    We're going to pause so I can change to tape.
    Just one moment.
    This is a continuation of an interview for the United States
    Holocaust Memorial Museum Volunteer Collection.
    We are interviewing Guta Jacobson.
    This is tape 2, side B.
    And you have been telling me about the death
    march and your liberation.
    You mentioned, when you were talking about the death march,
    that people who could not continue to walk
    were taken to the side, and--
    To the woods.
    --to the woods to be executed.
    Was there any shooting right there on the spot of people
    who couldn't continue?
    Yes.
    I saw it.
    People could-- they took sick.
    Their legs were swollen.
    They took them right away to the woods
    and they finished them off.
    They killed them.
    We heard shots.
    I saw it.
    And they were laying there, and we kept marching.
    We kept going.
    That was the worst thing in my life,
    and that's why we ran away.
    Once we stopped, and we had a little bit freedom
    because we were cooking the potatoes
    and whatever we found there, we ran away to the woods.
    And I think they knew it.
    I think they saw it.
    They didn't care.
    But they only cared when they found my sister.
    That's when they cared.
    And then we have to thank the Russian soldiers,
    that particular soldier who took us out.
    Because he says, well, where we're going,
    we're going straight into the war.
    That's where the soldiers kept coming on.
    So he took us out from the front, let's put it this way.
    That's how you call it.
    They took us-- he took us out.
    Then he went back, and then we met Polish workers already
    and thinks we spoke Polish.
    And that took us about a week to get back to Poland,
    because we were walking.
    We were going with wagons.
    There was no transportation.
    It was a horse.
    And we came back to Poland to Lodz.
    That was already a few days after the war in Lodz,
    after the war.
    One last question.
    How long were you on the march, the death march?
    With the transport?
    With the death march.
    How long were you marching?
    I would say a week.
    I would say a week, yes.
    So you came back after the war to Lodz.
    Can you describe what you found when you returned?
    Of course, we went right away where we used to live.
    And they recognized us.
    And one gave us a letter from-- this is the one.
    But when we went up, then we went to the ghetto.
    When we ran up the steps in the ghetto--
    and I cannot even now forgive myself that I didn't go
    into the house.
    Because the picture was laying there,
    my mother's and my father's picture, right on the step.
    Take it, and go away.
    So my sister and me, we start terrible to cry.
    We took that photo, and we ran away.
    We should have went into the house
    and find a lot of other things--
    it wasn't destroyed-- but we didn't.
    We were frightened.
    We were young.
    We were-- had no place where to go.
    When I met my husband, I met him in about two weeks knowing him.
    I had no place to go.
    How were you treated by the Poles when you returned?
    Well, in Lodz, we wasn't treated too bad,
    because it was a big city.
    And I right away from a Jewish commentate.
    So we had a place where to go and to put
    our names, because everybody was looking for everybody.
    We put our names.
    And my sister met somebody that she knew.
    And we took over a Polish apartment.
    You know what?
    I was told from the Polacks in my apartment house
    I should not take over the--
    the Jewish commentate wanted to give me my apartment
    from the mother.
    But the Polack said I shouldn't do it.
    They probably wouldn't.
    It was a scare to us or anything.
    So we said, no, we're not going to take over nothing.
    Because Polish people were living
    there were ready five years more.
    And we left them right away.
    We never came back to this place anymore-- not to this place
    and not to the ghetto place.
    But we were staying in Poland, because we were
    planning to go to Palestine.
    You said everybody was looking for relatives.
    Yes.
    Did you at that time know what had happened to your father?
    Yes.
    That time, my father, when he registered himself to go away
    from the ghetto, to go out, because he
    couldn't survive on that piece of bread and that rationing.
    He would have died anyway.
    All his friends died.
    They were laying in the street.
    So he went.
    He went to Oberschlesien.
    We knew where he went.
    Because in the beginning, we got one letter from him
    to the ghetto.
    And in the letter he said that he's very hungry, that he
    was building the [? bahnhof ?].
    He was laying [? bahnhof ?].
    How you called it in English?
    Where the bahn is going.
    That's what he was working on.
    It was a very hard job.
    They had to carry this on their--
    Rails?
    Rails.
    He was working on the railroad.
    You see, I forget sometimes the words when I'm so--
    and they were very hungry.
    We should send them some [INAUDIBLE]----
    this is the [INAUDIBLE] thing--
    and something to eat.
    But we couldn't do anything anyway.
    The ghetto didn't let it out anything.
    That was right in the beginning, and that's where he died--
    Do you know--
    --on [INAUDIBLE].
    Do you know, excuse me, if the camp where he was had a name?
    Or did you have any idea where he was working?
    Oberschlesien.
    In Oberschlesien, how much was the workers, the DP workers,
    in a band of what they were building?
    It must have been one thing, one group.
    That's where he died, in Oberschlesien.
    People say him dead, yeah.
    Tell me about reunions that you had with people
    that you knew before the war, other Jews that had survived.
    The best reunion was when my sister came from Sweden.
    She had the typhoid in Bergen-Belsen.
    She ate that less--
    and she ate up less bread, what they were giving them.
    Besides this, she had typhoid.
    So she only had a piece of that bread and that soup,
    whatever was the poison there in Bergen-Belsen.
    When the American soldiers came in, she was laying dead,
    and they took her out, but she was still alive.
    And they took her, and they shipped her to Sweden
    for overhaul.
    And over there, she got better, and better, and better.
    And then she came back to Lodz.
    That was the best thing, because we hide her.
    We didn't know what happened to her.
    Either they threw her into that lake, what I say,
    or they took her to Bergen-Belsen.
    Because we knew when we're going to cross that lake,
    we're going to go to Bergen, if we're going to cross that lake.
    That was the lesson--
    stop in that dead march, and we knew about it.
    So we went away.
    She couldn't go with us.
    She-- we wait.
    And that-- look, then I met a few Jewish people.
    And he said that that was the 500 Jews.
    Among those was my husband.
    Now I'm going to ask you to explain about the 500.
    My husband had a job in the ghetto.
    There was one trolley car in the ghetto,
    and he was the trolley car man.
    So he probably took me out to Auschwitz.
    [INAUDIBLE]
    So when the ghetto was empty already,
    and these people who worked to clean up the ghetto were there,
    they couldn't take them out anymore.
    They maintained to clean the ghetto.
    That's how he went in, and he took out
    my brother lost that exhibit and other things.
    But in the last minute, they wanted
    to kill all the 500 people.
    So they made hideout places for them, and they all were hidden.
    They didn't have time to kill them,
    because they had to run away.
    All the Germans had to run away, and that's how they were alive.
    And we came back.
    He was alive.
    And I met him.
    How?
    How did you meet him?
    I met him.
    My sister knew his brother.
    Not Leo.
    The one other brother, the middle brother, what I say.
    He wasn't raised by Rumkowski.
    She knew him from the ghetto.
    He had already occupied a German apartment in Lodz,
    because they ran away.
    So my sister went to him to live with him,
    and they got married right away.
    In the meantime, I lived with her.
    When his brother came in, we married-- two brothers
    and two sisters.
    My sister is a Jacobson, and I'm a Jacobson.
    When his brother came to visit him, he saw me.
    He was alone, too, and he wanted me very badly.
    But I had the Jewish upbringing.
    And I say, I cannot go with you until we get married.
    So maybe after two weeks came a friend
    who knew to say something in Hebrew.
    [HEBREW] You know how you get married?
    And he married us.
    And believe me, I didn't have a ring.
    I found a piece of tin, and that's how I got married.
    I had it for so long, but now I don't know where.
    I put it like this, and I married him.
    Now I say, I could go with you to bed.
    It's not like my kids they do now.
    And I won't be ashamed of my mother.
    The whole thing was concentrated on my mother,
    because she was something.
    She was-- not even to talk about it--
    came from such a family, my god.
    Her father, my grandfather, I saw him once in my life.
    My grandfather, he lived in Kozhnitz
    with the Kozhnitz rabbi.
    He had such a beard.
    He went out in the street with his tallit.
    And he told them they should kill him,
    and that's how he died.
    He never went to Auschwitz.
    He never was sick.
    They killed him, because he wanted to be killed.
    And I remember his father.
    That was the Kozhnitz rabbi.
    I came once to Lodz, and I was a small little girl.
    And it was a line of people.
    Every Jewish person in Lodz went to see the Kozhnitz rabbi.
    And when he saw, he heard, that Ita--
    I talk about Ita, I have a daughter, my oldest child,
    her name is Ita--
    that Ita is here, Ita [? Shienfeld ?]..
    He left everything and out and took my mother by hand.
    And I went with her, because I was the baby.
    She dragged me with her.
    And he put this hand on her things.
    He blessed her.
    I'll never forget this.
    You could see only once [INAUDIBLE]..
    Like to say, that's old Rabbi [INAUDIBLE]----
    what was his name-- that I blessed, he gave the--
    you never saw in your life a child
    should go through what I saw.
    And how could they take her and burn her?
    She didn't do anything wrong, as you know and I know.
    I only cry when I talk about my mother,
    because there was so much respect for her--
    there was so much.
    [INAUDIBLE]
    You told me that you had gotten married.
    What other steps did you take to build a life for yourself
    again after the war?
    What should I tell you, I should reveal?
    I went to Germany.
    I went back to Germany.
    I lived in [PLACE NAME].
    This was Schlesien.
    And then I left everything, and I went to Germany,
    because my heart was to go to Palestine.
    As I mentioned, as a child, I belonged to Hanoar Hatzioni.
    But the war broke out in Israel, and my husband came to Germany.
    We met again in Germany.
    I left him in Poland and went to Germany by myself.
    And I became pregnant.
    My daughter was born in Germany in 1948.
    She was born.
    And I figured, what?
    I'm going to go.
    I have a big family in Israel.
    My mother's sisters, brothers, were still alive.
    My mother's sisters still alive in Germany--
    in Israel and Palestine.
    They went to Palestine after World War I.
    We all was very big Zionists, very big Zionists.
    And when I was pregnant and the war broke out in Israel,
    but Leo went to Israel from Germany.
    And he wrote a letter to Germany, we should not come,
    because in Israel it's very bad, the situation is very bad.
    People go to war.
    Who knows if he's not have to go to war.
    And we shouldn't come.
    So we came right after this was an aliyah to come to America,
    to register to America.
    The Joint came, and I registered to America.
    And no sooner, we got the visas to come to America.
    So we came to America.
    My husband had [INAUDIBLE].
    She's dead.
    The uncle is dead, but he still has cousins, see.
    So we came to America.
    That's how we came.
    When did you come to the United States?
    The beginning of April, April 23.
    1948, my daughter was born.
    As you know this, I was born April 23.
    You want to hear something?
    My Stevie just got a baby seven months ago--
    that's his first baby--
    was born on his birthday.
    I have a son in San Francisco, Neal.
    He adopted a child not knowing--
    he took out the child from the hospital--
    was born the same day on his birthday.
    And my daughter was born on my birthday.
    This is ironic for one family.
    So I came to America, and I had a very big [INAUDIBLE]
    in America.
    I gave birth to a handicapped child,
    and I have a handicapped child in San Francisco--
    severe handicap.
    But there's a lot of talk about Neal.
    His name is Neal Jacobson.
    If you see him on television, if you see him in any place,
    he might going to come here.
    They wanted him to come here to work.
    He is-- would you like me to show you what he is?
    Maybe later.
    Let's finish the interview first.
    He is the vice president of the Wells Fargo banks.
    He finished Hofstra University, made Phi Beta Kappa.
    He's a genius in the United States.
    What kind of genius?
    Computers-- very high in computers.
    I cannot tell you his life, because it has to take another
    tape.
    Because I'm going to tell you only my life.
    And I raised Neal by myself without a parent.
    I had to get a child after what I went through.
    That was the biggest, biggest thing, but I'm glad for him.
    He's doing wonderful.
    Where did you settle when you came to the United States?
    New York.
    In New York.
    Yeah, in Coney Island, in Brooklyn.
    How did you, your family, support yourself when you came?
    My husband was a tailor, but he never
    wanted to go to tailoring.
    Because his uncle was a tailor, a [INAUDIBLE],, in New York.
    And he wanted him in the worst way
    to teach him how to be a [INAUDIBLE]..
    But he told himself he'll never be--
    he worked in the ghetto, and he knew.
    He was in the ghetto, and he knew
    what it means to be a tailor.
    He went with a [? scissor ?] to my uncle,
    and he find out in a supermarket.
    Not knowing English, they took him
    in-- a very fine person, that intelligent man.
    They took him in, and then we opened up a supermarket
    on [? Ramsey ?] Avenue.
    And then we opened up a supermarket on Cropsey Avenue
    with a partner, and they made out very nicely.
    But he had a heart condition, and he had the first heart
    attack when he was 49 years old--
    then the second heart attack and the third heard attack.
    By '59, he passed away, 1959--
    1979 he passed away.
    Why would I say 1979?
    The first heart attack, he had 1949.
    And he passed away in 1959.
    When you came to this country, did you
    get any help from any of the Jewish agencies?
    The Joint helped me.
    I lived in Morrissey Hotel on Broadway,
    but a very short time, because we didn't want any help.
    And right away, he worried, and then we lived in New York.
    And it was OK.
    We made a living.
    Even if he made $50 a week, we made a living.
    I couldn't work, because I had a handicapped child.
    Then after this, I had Stevie, but I made necessary on Stevie.
    Due to not having a cesarean, my son
    was born with cerebral palsy.
    And if you know what cerebral palsy is, it's a brain damage.
    When you first came to the United States,
    did anybody ask you about your experiences in Europe?
    They did ask.
    They did ask, but the people were so nice when we came,
    so different from now.
    I don't know why they changed.
    Everybody offered us help.
    We felt we could speak Jewish to them,
    because we didn't talk English, and they were very, very nice.
    I encountered warmth when I came here,
    and then I started to build up.
    I came with a baby in my arms.
    She was 18 months old.
    And we build it up ourselves.
    You said that they asked about your experiences in Europe.
    What did you tell them about what happened?
    I didn't want to talk about it.
    I didn't want to talk about it.
    I wouldn't talk about it till now.
    My daughter, she's a very--
    she's a schoolteacher-- very, very intelligent personality,
    very nice.
    She lives in Long Island.
    You know Long Island.
    You know Sands Point--
    very swell place.
    She was a very delicate person.
    She saw me crying a lot, but she never asked.
    The only thing she asked that I have an aunt in Israel.
    By the time I went-- because my husband had a heart attack
    very early.
    By the time I went to Israel, my aunt was that dead already,
    but I met all my cousins.
    We found our cousins through the registration,
    through the papers.
    When it was the first gathering in Israel, that's when I went--
    from the Holocaust survivors.
    That's when I went to Israel.
    And by that time, my cousins knew already
    that we are alive, because they found out.
    They were looking for us.
    And then I had a little family.
    I still have a little family in Israel.
    Some of them died already, but I still
    have a nice little family.
    Since then, I was already four times [INAUDIBLE]..
    What did you tell your children about your childhood
    and your life in Europe?
    When there were small, when they were small,
    I didn't talk about it.
    When they start to--
    oh, there is blinking.
    When they start to ask about--
    well, after all, I had once a mother and a father.
    They knew already about the World War II.
    So once they knew about the World War II,
    they didn't want to hurt me.
    They didn't talk until my daughter saw a magazine.
    And she summoned me via at breakfast.
    And she said to me, now, sit down.
    I want to know everything.
    I say, there were times when you didn't want to.
    You only knew when I said, I was once so hungry.
    You eat everything what I'm cooking.
    Don't you throw away a bite.
    Because I was-- till today, they talk about it.
    My mother was hungry.
    You have to eat everything.
    Then they start to realize.
    But the most interested who was in the Holocaust
    was my handicapped son, the most interested.
    He's an extremely intelligent person.
    I told you, he finished Hofstra University.
    Now, he's going to go back to Berkeley.
    He did some work for Berkeley.
    What was the work?
    They have to change the computers now.
    You know what's going on with the 2000,
    so Berkeley ask him to come.
    And they wanted to pay him.
    He doesn't want it.
    So he's going for his doctorate.
    They're not going to charge him anything.
    What made you decide to tell your story
    and give your testimony now?
    My son.
    I never wanted to do--
    I never want to leave anything.
    My son now says that I have a friend,
    and you're going to be here, and you was in the museum already.
    And you know, I want to have a tape.
    I want my children to hear the tape.
    And that's what makes me say yes.
    Till now, I refused everything.
    I'm going to show you telephones like this.
    I refused, because I cannot take it, no.
    Is there anything that you'd like to add before we conclude?
    Anything that we didn't talk about
    that you would like to talk about?
    I hope this will never repeat in future, future generations what
    we went through.
    I hope this is a lesson for the whole world.
    They should never forget.
    Although, there's a lot of atrocity going around now
    still in the world.
    And I hope we'll never lose Israel.
    Because if we would have Israel at that time,
    it could have happened, but not in such a scale.
    Everybody turned away their ears.
    Nobody saw, nobody heard about it, which was wrong.
    Everybody saw, and everybody knew about it.
    That's what we know now, but we didn't know then.
    And that is my hope.
    My children, and new children, and all the children
    will never see and hear something like this.
    I want to thank you for speaking with us today.
    Thank you, because let them have that tape.
    Let my children have that tape.
    And this will conclude our interview today.
    Thank you very much.

    Overview

    Interview Summary
    Guta Jacobson (née Rogowitz), born on April 23, 1925 in Łódź, Poland, discusses her early life in Łódź; relations between Jews and Christians; her activity in a Zionist organization; various holiday celebrations; the German invasion of Poland and the implementation of Nazi race laws; food shortages; the establishment of the Łódź ghetto; her family’s indecision on whether or not to flee; life in the ghetto; losing her faith in God after seeing her parents give up their children; her father’s disappearance; the typhus epidemic; hearing rumors of Chelmno and Auschwitz; hiding from the liquidation of the ghetto and their eventual deportation to Auschwitz in August of 1944; her immediate understanding of what was happening in the camp; Dr. Josef Mengele taking her mother away; being transported to a camp in Birnbäumel, Germany (now Gruszeczka, Poland), to work digging anti-tank trenches; the differing conditions of various camps; hiding in the woods during a death march; her return to a liberated Łódź; marrying her husband; her reunion with her sister who had been recuperating in Sweden after the liberation of Bergen-Belsen; immigrating to the United States; the birth of her children; the death of her husband; her avoidance of discussing her experiences with her children when they were young; her motivations for sharing her story now; and her hopes that the world will never forget.
    Interviewee
    Guta Jacobson
    Interviewer
    Esther Finder
    Date
    interview:  1998 June 11

    Physical Details

    Language
    English
    Extent
    2 sound cassettes (74 min.).

    Rights & Restrictions

    Conditions on Access
    There are no known restrictions on access to this material.
    Conditions on Use
    No restrictions on use

    Keywords & Subjects

    Personal Name
    Jacobson, Guta, 1925-

    Administrative Notes

    Legal Status
    Permanent Collection
    Provenance
    Esther Finder, on behalf of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Oral History Branch, conducted the interview with Guta Jacobson on June 11, 1998.
    Funding Note
    The cataloging of this oral history interview has been supported by a grant from the Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany.
    Record last modified:
    2023-11-16 08:12:26
    This page:
    https:​/​/collections.ushmm.org​/search​/catalog​/irn506682

    Additional Resources

    Transcripts (2)
    Summary (English)
    Time Coded Notes (3)

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    Consists of interviews with Holocaust survivors and concentration camp liberators conducted by United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Oral History Department volunteer staff. The interviewees, among them survivors from Hungary, Germany, Austria, France, Italy, and Poland, discuss their experiences of life before World War II, life in the ghettos, life in concentration camps, and life after the Holocaust.

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    Oral history interview with Doris Rauch

    Oral History

    Doris Rauch, born August 26, 1920 in Brno, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), discusses her childhood in Brno; the death of her father in 1936; the German invasion of Czechoslovakia; being unable to attend a German-speaking university because she was a Jew; attending a textile school; working in a factory; buying goods on the black market; her deportation to Theresienstadt on a passenger train; volunteering to work planting trees in Bohemia with her mother; returning to Theresienstadt after six weeks; avoiding transports to the East; being put on a transport in September 1942 along with her mother and boyfriend; being taken to Raasiku, Estonia and separated from her mother; being taken to Tallinn, Estonia in December 1942 to clear rubble for the Holzmann construction firm; being taken to a camp in Ereda at the end of 1943; how she and other women stopped menstruating; working in the forest; a romantic relationship between a prisoner and an SS commander; being given a ring by male inmate; contracting hepatitis in Ereda; being taken to Stutthof; how she had written in a diary every day in Estonia; being very sick; arriving at Bergen-Belsen in April 1945; taking another prisoner’s place to work in a factory; finding fliers saying that the Allies were approaching; being taken to the Danish border at the end of April 1945 and turned over to the Danish Red Cross who provided food, care, and new clothing; living in Sweden for two years working as a secretary for the World Jewish Congress; living with two women she met in the camps; moving to the United States in May 1947 and experiencing culture shock; marrying and moving to Chicago, then Pittsburg, and then to Washington D.C.; the effect of her experiences on her religious beliefs; and reparations from Germany.

    Oral history interview with Joseph Elman

    Oral History

    Joseph Elman, born February 5, 1922 in Pruzhany, Poland (present day Belarus), discusses the German and Russian occupations of Pruzhany; his memories of the murder of 11 Jews in Pruzhany by Nazis; being forced into slave labor; the relocation of his family into the ghetto; daily living conditions in the ghetto, which included starvation and crowding; his work in the ghetto’s food department; the liquidation of the ghetto starting in January 1943; his father’s membership in the Judenrat; his father’s suicide; how he and others built a bunker in the ghetto; his contact with a resistance group which was smuggling weapons into the ghetto; his escape from the ghetto with a large group of people during the liquidation; his experience living in the woods as part of a partisan group; forming family bonds with members of the group; liberation by the Russian Army; returning to his home in Pruzhany to find a family living there; living with this family for a period of time; moving to Bialystok, Poland to join his brother; settling in Łódź, Poland; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with Gerald Rosenstein

    Oral History

    Gerald Rosenstein (b. Gerhard Rosenstein) describes his early life in Darmstadt, Germany; being attacked and beaten by a schoolmate’s father as a child; immigrating to Amsterdam with his family in May 1940; trying to leave for England after the German occupation; the persecutions Amsterdam’s Jewish community faced; being separated from his family in Westerbork; being sent to Theresienstadt; reuniting with his parents there; living conditions in Theresienstadt; partaking in propaganda for the Red Cross; being deported to Auschwitz with his father; being transferred to Gleiwitz; working conditions in camp; being marched to Blechhammer in January 1945; how he felt at liberation; traveling through Poland, Romania, and Odessa before boarding a Red Cross ship to Paris;

    Oral history interview with Ivan Becker

    Oral History

    Ivan Becker, born in 1929, discusses his childhood in Budapest, Hungary; his memories of the "hanging priest of Budapest" who killed Jews for refusing conversion to Christianity; the Nazi invasion of Hungary; harsh restrictions on Jews; his father who was sent to Buchenwald; being sent on a death march with his mother from Budapest towards Austria; being separated from his mother and never seeing her again; his life in hiding; his experiences in an unnamed ghetto; his return to Budapest after liberation; his time in a displaced persons camp in Bad Gastein, Austria; his immigration to the United States as a "war orphan" in 1946; and his adjustment to life after the Holocaust and success in business.

    Oral history interview with Romana Koplewicz

    Oral History

    Romana Koplewicz (née Margitte), born April 26, 1919 in Warsaw, Poland, describes her pre-war life in Poland; her parents and sister; her father’s dye factory; her education at a private Jewish school; her law school education at the University of Joseph Pilsudski in Warsaw; the antisemitism she experienced in law school; meeting her husband in 1936; her inability to complete law school due to anti-Jewish legislation; the beginning of the war and ghettoization in Warsaw; working in her father’s factory; her father’s arrest and return in the spring of 1940; the liquidation of the ghetto; her work sewing German uniforms; her escape with her family from numerous selections; the false papers she and her sister acquired in 1943; her work in the ghetto in a manufacturing factory; working as a housekeeper to survive; her time in Otwock Poland working as a chambermaid in summer 1944 at a convent; her escape to Grodzisko Mazovieckie, Poland because the Gestapo were looking for her; her time working for a German in Warsaw; the Warsaw ghetto uprising; the ghetto’s evacuation and her transfer to Piastów, Poland; her survival and return to Warsaw; her reunion with her husband and their marriage; leaving Warsaw for Germany with her husband; her time in Germany with her husband waiting for their visa to the United States; her immigration to the United States in May 1949; her master’s degree in social work; and her two children and her life in the U.S.

    Oral history interview with Joseph Koplewicz

    Oral History

    Joseph Koplewicz, born December 7, 1915 in Kielce, Poland, describes his pre-war life in Kielce; his parents and siblings; his father’s occupation as a businessman; his education in Kielce and law school education in Warsaw; his family’s religious attitudes; his experiences with antisemitism while attending law school; the beginning of the war; his arrest in Kielce for not wearing a Star of David badge; the ghettoization of Warsaw; performing forced labor in Warsaw; his father’s death due to health complications; his stay with his sister and her husband in a comfortable apartment; his marriage in 1942; being wounded in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; his transfer to Majdanek concentration camp; his transfer to Budzyn labor camp near Krasnik, Poland until February 1944; his transfer to Mielec, Poland where he worked as a draftsman until July 1944; his short time in Wieliczka, Flossenbürg, Litomerice, and Dachau; his transfer to Augsburg, Germany where he worked in airport construction; his time in Kaufering and Nuremburg; a forced march to Landshut, Germany where the SS guards in charge fled; the marchers subsequent scattering; his survival and return to Poland; his reunion with his wife; their decision to leave Poland and immigrate to the United States in 1949; and his post-war life in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Irving Schaffer

    Oral History

    Irving Schaffer, born May 26, 1928 in Chust, Czechoslovakia (present day Khust, Ukraine), discusses growing up in an Orthodox family; his early education; a teacher beating him in front of the class in 1943; experiencing antisemitism before the war; his father’s arrest for receiving milk from a neighbor; the deportation of his father and brother to labor camps; his family’s eviction from their home and deportation to the Chust Ghetto; conditions of the ghetto, such as the Jewish leadership; his assignment as a messenger and pass to leave the ghetto; smuggling in bread from outside the ghetto; people being punished for being Hungarian; being transported by train from the ghetto after three weeks; how partisans blew up the train and told prisoners to jump off and escape; arriving at Auschwitz in the spring of 1944; his memories of Dr. Mengele; being separated from the rest of his family at Auschwitz; being sent to Warsaw, Poland after only three days at Auschwitz; working to clean out the Warsaw Ghetto; prisoners escaping from the Warsaw ghetto; being marched out of the ghetto in August 1944; arriving at Kutno on the German and Polish border; being transported by train to Dachau; living in Camp Seven and working in Mühldorf in an ammunition factory; stealing potatoes and bartering with other prisoners; being transported from Dachau; finding a train transporting sugar that had been bombed and eating the hot sugar; being transported to the Landshut camp; working in Landsberg, Germany; a bombing by American planes; being released by the Germans and then chased down and beaten into a coma; waking up in a German hospital; organizations that assisted in reconnecting families, such as UNRRA and the Joint Distribution Committee; being liberated in Feldmoching, Germany; finding his brother in Chust; how the Russians did not let him leave Chust; escaping across borders into Germany; attending school in Munich, Germany; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with William Klein

    Oral History

    William Klein, born in 1924, discusses growing up in Užhorod, Czechoslovakia (present day Uzhhorod, Ukraine), in a large family; attending Jewish school until the sixth grade, then entering a public high school; the friendliness between Jews and non-Jews in Užhorod; his two older brothers leaving in 1940 for Yugoslavia and Russia with the army; Jews being made to wear the yellow Star of David badge and comply with a curfew beginning in 1942; hearing rumors about Jews being killed in Poland; being forced into the ghetto in January or February 1944; being taken by train to Auschwitz in the spring of 1944; last seeing his parents and sister as they went through the selection process at Auschwitz; being advised by a kapo to volunteer for work outside the camp when he had the opportunity; being taken to what had been the Warsaw Ghetto along with his brother and brother-in-law to demolish buildings and clear debris; finding gold pieces in an abandoned house where he was working and hiding them in a belt; prisoners making up songs and singing as they worked; being forced to march to Dachau as the Russians advanced towards Warsaw; witnessing the death of a rabbi he and his brother had helped on the march; staying in Dachau for a few days; volunteering to work at a construction site; being seriously injured on the construction site and being helped by fellow prisoners, including one who was a doctor; escaping with his brother and brother-in-law from a train and hiding in a farmhouse as the Americans liberated the area; reuniting with his surviving family members in Bratislava and Užhorod; living in Sudetenland and then in a series of displaced persons camps in Germany (Wasserburg, Föhrenwald, and Bremerhaven) and applying to move to the United States; having his application delayed after being accused of being a communist; moving to Chicago in 1951; his pride in his Jewish identity; health problems caused by beatings he received during his time as a prisoner; telling his children about his experiences; and his response to the question of why he does not hate.

    Oral history interview with George Pisik

    Oral History

    George Pisik, born May 25, 1925, describes his experience as a soldier in the U.S. Army’s 15th armored division, 10th infantry battalion; entering Dachau in May 1945 without any prior knowledge of concentration camps; his battalion’s doctor trying to help the prisoners; searching a guard who was subsequently taken by prisoners and killed in the barracks; meeting a 19 year-old female prisoner in Dachau and giving her the mezuzah his grandmother had given him to wear; receiving almost 100 mezuzahs from his family and friends after writing them; giving these mezuzahs to chaplains to distribute and to his fellow soldiers, telling them they were good luck charms; entering Munich and seeing the giant swastika on Munich Stadium, which his commander ordered to be destroyed by tank fire; seeing Germans surrender; conflicts with German civilians; suffering from trench foot and impetigo; returning to the United States expecting to be sent to Japan but staying after the bombing of Hiroshima; after his homecoming, using a swastika flag as a doormat, which drew the attention of the neighborhood and the police when his mother washed it and hung it out to dry; bringing home pistols which his mother took to the army depot to be deactivated; returning to college; his frustration with Holocaust deniers, including a Catholic priest he met in 1950 in Louisiana; the failings of the Catholic Church during the Holocaust; his feelings towards the Germans; his belief that a holocaust could happen again; his level of religious involvement; and the importance of education in preventing another holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Rosicka

    Oral History

    Ruth Rosicka, born August 13, 1919 in Nowice, Czechoslovakia (present day Poland), describes her Polish father who was actively pro-Zion; escaping bombing in Bielsko, Poland; escaping through Krakow, Poland and being found by the Russian army; being deported to a camp in Siberia from which she was amnestied in 1941; being drafted by the Czechoslovakian army and working in the medical brigade, where in 1944 she met her husband; being taken to the Carpathian Mountains, to the war front, where they stayed until February 1945; being released from the Army in May 1945 because of her pregnancy; and living in Prague, Czech Republic after the war.

    Oral history interview with Salomon Cohen

    Oral History

    Salomon Cohen, born July 28, 1937 in Athens, Greece, discusses how his family escaped to the south of Greece in February 1943 with the help of partisans; hiding with his family in the mountains for six months; how the partisans obtained food from monasteries in the mountains for his family; using false names while in hiding; traveling to Izmir, Turkey then Syria; being captured by English troops; how the family was taken to British camps in the Gaza Strip; their escape with the help of a Jewish agency; traveling to Ted Aviv, Israel, where they lived from 1944 to 1952; going into the army as a tank fighter; going to Haifa, Israel after leaving the army; getting married and having children; and his visits to Greece.

    Oral history interview with Suzanne Foldes

    Oral History

    Suzanne Foldes (b. Zsuzsi Morvai) discusses her childhood in Miskolc, Hungary; her Jewish and Christian schooling; pre-war antisemitism; training as a gymnast but being denied entry into the Olympics because she was Jewish; her father’s conscription into Hungarian forced labor; getting married in 1942 to Paul Berkowitz; terminating a pregnancy; the German occupation of Hungary; being confined to a ghetto; being transported to Auschwitz by cattle car; learning of her mother’s death by gassing; moving to Buchenwald; how she was good at stealing coal; liberation; returning to Budapest after the war; reuniting with her father; learning of her husband’s death; marrying a friend from before the war; immigrating to the United States in 1956; and speaking about her wartime experiences beginning in the 1990s.

    Oral history interview with Tibor Vince

    Oral History

    Tibor Vince, born in 1910, describes his childhood near Budapest, Hungary; his medical studies in Italy; his escape to Cuba at the outbreak of World War II; his immigration to the United States; his work as a physician in the United States Army; his experiences at Dachau shortly after liberation; his medical treatment of Allied prisoners of war; and his life in New York, NY after 1945.

    Oral history interview with Elias Piorko

    Oral History

    Elias Piorko, born on May 15, 1919, discusses his childhood in Zambrów, Poland; his life in a kibbutz near Slonim, Poland (now Belarus); his experiences with forced labor in Russia; being in four different camps; his travels through Europe on the way to Italy after World War II; and his life in the United States after 1950.

    Oral history interview with Benjamin Hildesheim

    Oral History

    Benjamin (Beniek) Hildesheim discusses his childhood in Sieradz, Poland; his experiences with antisemitism and Jewish persecution in Sieradz before the Holocaust; his time in the ghettos of Sieradz and Łódź, Poland; his adoption by Chaim Rumkowski; his imprisonment at Auschwitz, Babice/Babitz (a small agricultural camp west of Auschwitz), and Buchenwald concentration camps; his participation in a death march to Theresienstadt, where he remained until liberation; his time in Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), immediately after liberation; his immigration to Palestine in the first Aliyah after World War II in 1945; his participation in the Israel-Arab War of 1948 to 1949; and his life in Brazil and the United States after 1962.

    Oral history interview with Peter Masters

    Oral History

    Peter Masters (né Peter Arany), born February 5, 1922, in Vienna, Austria, describes his prewar life in Vienna; his Viennese mother and Hungarian father; his escape to Britain after the Anschluss in 1938; his family’s internment as “friendly aliens;” his family’s reclassification as enemy aliens in Britain; his experiences volunteering for special hazardous duty in Britain and being assigned the 3rd Group, 10th Commando, an elite paratroop unit mostly consisting of Jewish or political refugees; his identity being anglicized for his protection; his work to petition for the recognition of Austrians who perished fighting the Nazis; his many family members who perished during the war; and his 1997 book, Striking back: A Jewish commando’s war against the Nazis, which he wrote as a counterpoint to the idea the Jews did not fight back during the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Joseph Wolke

    Oral History

    Joseph Wolke (Wolkeovich), born July 14, 1919 in Tomashov (Tomaszów Mazowiecki), Poland, discusses his family background and religious upbringing; his father’s successful farm outside the city; the rise of Hitler and antisemitism; racial laws against Jews; being deported during Rosh Hashanah; arriving in Krakow, Poland on a cattle train; his disbelief that the war would last so long; escaping from the Germans and returning to Tomashov by bus; how the farm provided for the family; increases in the deportation of Jews; living in the Tomashov ghetto; smuggling food into the ghetto; the liquidation of the ghetto on November 1, 1942; the mass burial of Jews in the ghetto for which he was forced to dig graves; being deported to Bergen-Belsen; being transferred on a cattle train to Auschwitz; forced labor digging ditches outside the camp; being relocated to Gross-Rosen camp; the death march from Rosen, which lasted over a week; starvation during the march; liberation by Russian forces; returning home to Poland; meeting his wife and having a child; immigrating to the United States in August 1950; living in Baltimore, MD with his wife’s family; adjusting to American life; creating a business; and learning the fate of his family members in the years following the war.

    Oral history interview with Ionel Ghelman

    Oral History

    Ionel Ghelman, born on March 27, 1929 in Bucharest, Romania, discusses his mother’s death in 1938 and being raised by his maternal aunt; experiencing antisemitism; seeing boys in 1936 practicing to be in the Iron Guard in the future; the German occupation in 1940; the events in January 1941, including pogroms, stores being burned, and Jews being killed; ration cards and how Jews’ ration cards were half of Rumanians’ cards; the Allied bombardments of Bucharest from late 1943 to early 1944; seeing Russian tanks and troops in August 1944; leaving school in 1946 to work in a locomotive factory; rejecting the Communist Youth Party and feeling a connection to Zionist Hashomer Hatzair; going to Bukovina to prepare for kibbutz in Israel; the banning of Zionist organizations in 1949; being a draftsman for oil pipeline company from 1948 to 1950; marrying a Romanian woman in 1956; his children; being expelled from the Communist Party because parents went to Israel; getting visas for Hungary, France, and Germany in 1976; going to New York in April 21, 1977 with the help of HIAS; and settling in Washington and working for Bechtel.

    Oral history interview with Irimia Solomon

    Oral History

    Irimia Solomon, born on November 3, 1924 in Dorohoi, Romania, describes his parents, who were divorced; how he and his mother lived with his grandparents in Falticeni, Romania; his granfather’s farm; the Jewish community in the town and his family not being particularly religious; Jews in Moldovan cities; his education; playing soccer with non-Jewish children; hearing about antisemitism; wanting to go to Palestine; going to school in Bucharest, Romania to learn a trade; his relationship with his father; an uprising in Romania in September 1940; the Iron Guard (Garda de Fier); returning to Falticeni in December 1941; going to Dorohoi; his father being taken away in June 1942; being taken to forced work, unloading rail cards and sweeping; being deported with his mother to Transnistria and conditions during the journey there; having to trade in their Romanian money for Russian rubles; arriving in Sharhorod, Ukraine; being housed in a synagogue for several weeks; staying in a room in a house of a Christian family with other Jews; being in a ghetto, where there was religious life but no cultural life; building roads and sleeping overnight in rail cars outfitted with bunk bed; typhus in Sharhorod and helping to bury the dead; his mother not working and staying indoors; being helped by a cousin’s Christian husband; being taken back to Dorohoi in December 1943; moving from house to house until they could contact relatives; not feeling relief or happiness; his mother being treated as a war widow and being allowed to sell certain items, such as stamps, alcohol, and tobacco; returning to school and going to the polytechnic in 1945; waiting from 1958 to 1972 to get a passport; going to Israel, where his wife did not like the heat; going to Canada, where they settled in Toronto; working as an engineer; and moving to Montreal.

    Oral history interview with Lotte Salus

    Oral History

    Lotte Salus (b. Charlotte Helena Cohen) discusses her childhood living near the Dutch border in Germany; working for a Jewish family; being arrested and pressed into labor after Kristallnacht; being sent to Amsterdam, Netherlands by her father; living with other Jewish teenagers in The Hague, Netherlands; learning her family had been deported to Westerbork; moving to Amsterdam in May 1940; receiving orders to register with the police; being deported to Westerbork; reuniting with her family; daily life in Westerbork; volunteering to go to Theresienstadt with her parents in 1944; her experiences in the camps Auschwitz, Stutthof, and Praust; being taken on a death march in March 1945; liberation by the Russians; sexual violence perpetrated by the Russians; returning to Germany; immigrating to the United States in 1949; and marrying and starting a family.

    Oral history interview with Irena Kirkland

    Oral History

    Irena Neumann discusses her childhood in Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); not having a Jewish identity or religious education; evacuating Prague before the Munich Agreement; returning to the city and learning she was Jewish; adapting to restrictions placed on Jews; her feelings about wearing the yellow star; being deported to Theresienstadt with her family; daily life in the camp; contracting encephalitis; being deported to Auschwitz; conditions in camps Auschwitz and Sachsen Chemnitz; returning to Theresienstadt in May 1945; reuniting with her parents; liberation by Russian soldiers; returning to Prague; beginning university; being arrested and released by communists; and immigrating to the United States in 1956.

    Oral history interview with Hans Hirsch

    Oral History

    Hans George Hirsch discusses his early life in Stuttgart, Germany; his father’s role as executive director of the German Jewish Community; graduating gymnasium in 1934; prewar antisemitism; the difficulties he experienced attending university and holding a job in Nazi Germany; visiting Palestine in 1937; receiving a visa to leave for the United States in 1937; working on farms in the U.S.; trying to get his parents out of Europe; teaching German prisoners of war farm management from 1943 to 1946; his career trajectory in food administration and policy; and his retirement from foreign agricultural service.

    Oral history interview with Milton Shurr

    Oral History

    Milton Shurr, born January 28, 1911 in the United States, describes his work with the Jewish Welfare Fund in Oklahoma City, OK in the early 1940s; his draft into the military and entering Officer’s Candidate School; being shipped overseas to England, where he worked in preparation for D-Day in June 1944; his recruitment by the Civil Affairs Unit of the Military Government to gather and identify medical supplies left behind on Omaha Beach, France; helping to provide food for the 15,000 survivors of Buchenwald and working with the Red Cross and Joint Distribution Committee; traveling to Bavaria, Germany to work has a health welfare officer; working to reopen schools, hospitals, banks, and other institutions in Germany; maintaining correspondence with his wife in America during the war; returning to the United States after the war and moving to Chicago as an assistant in health planning; and sharing what he had witnessed in Buchenwald after years of being unable to speak about it.

    Oral history interview with Ludwig Jacob

    Oral History

    Ludwig Jacob discusses his early life in Schmalkalden, Germany; being arrested with his parents on Kristallnacht; being imprisoned in Buchenwald for a month; leaving on a Kindertransport to Holland; living in a children’s home; the German invasion; moving to his brother’s home in Amsterdam; the arrest of his brother, who subsequently was imprisoned and died in Mauthausen; receiving a deportation notice; choosing to live under a false identity; moving to Paris, France and working with the underground; sabotaging the German defense organization where he worked; being denounced and arrested; spending time in Fresnes prison before being deported to Drancy; jumping off the train on the way to Buchenwald; rejoining the resistance; working for Americans in Paris; immigrating to the United States in 1947; and his marriage and life in the US.

    Oral history interview with Barbara Artman

    Oral History

    Barbara Feuerstein Artman, born September 12, 1923 in Kosice, Czechoslovakia (now Slovakia), discusses her parents Elizabeth and Henry Feuerstein and two younger brothers; her 14 aunts and uncles and 27 first cousins, who all perished in the Holocaust; her family’s move to Mukacheve, Czechoslovakia (now Ukraine), which in March 1939 was occupied by Hungry; the Nazi invasion of Hungary in 1944; being forced to live in a ghetto; conditions in the ghetto; her deportation with her family to Auschwitz; conditions in Auschwitz; the treatment of camp guards; being sent to a labor camp near Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland) with her mother; their liberation by the Russians while on a march; walking, at the end of the war, to Krakow; reuniting with one brother; attending medical school but changing her major to chemistry; contacting uncles in United States who arranged for visas and transportation to the US for her, her mother, and her brother; and settling in Forest Hills, NY, where she married another refugee and had one son.

    Oral history interview with Fritz Schonbach

    Oral History

    Fritz (né Frederic) Schonbach, born in 1920, discusses his middle-class childhood in Vienna, Austria; attending private school until Jewish restrictions began in 1938; how life changed with the Nazi annexation of Austria; antisemitism in Austria and the terror campaigns; fleeing to Italy then to England in 1939; his family fleeing to Argentina while he remained in England; his internment in England because of his Austrian background; volunteering for the Australian army; daily life in the army; being discharged in 1946; enrolling in art school after the war; meeting his wife; reuniting with family in Argentina; immigrating to the United States in 1959; and discovering what happened to various family members in the war.

    Oral history interview with Charles Barber

    Oral History

    Charles Barber, born in 1932 in Budapest, Hungary, describes his father, who owned a liquor store; attending a public grade school, where some of the non-Jews wouldn't speak with him; his memories of the first bomb being dropped in Budapest in 1939; his father being drafted into the labor corps of the Hungarian army; his mother’s work as a tailor; being an only child; his father dying after two months in the labor corps; his mother being taken to a camp for eight months in 1943; living with several different people; his mother returning home; his memories of feeling guilty for telling his mother that he was hungry; the Jews being summoned to the courthouse in town and being separated from his mother by the officials; going to live in an orphanage with a Swedish flag out front; the Russian army and their activities in Budapest; his aunt sending him to the Red Cross then a Zionist orphanage in Sagat; returning to Budapest to work in a factory; attending law school but leaving when the revolution began; going to Austria and then the United States with the help of the Red Cross; living with an uncle in the US; becoming an accountant, attending Queensborough Community College and then Bernard Baruch College; working for ABC Transnational Transport; getting married to an Austrian Holocaust survivor; the effects of his Holocaust experience; losing his faith when he lost his parents; visiting Europe; antisemitism in Hungary; wanting to go to Israel; possessing a letter from his mother, which she wrote while she was in Bergen-Belsen, and a picture of his parents (which is in the USHMM Photo Archive); and his other family pictures.

    Oral history interview with Tibor Borsos

    Oral History

    Tibor Borsos, born on March 12, 1927 in Budapest, Hungary, describes his highly intellectual Catholic family; his family moving to Debrecen in 1936; having many Jewish friends; how he “looked Jewish” and was sometimes made fun of; his family’s possession of an American flag, National Geographic magazines, and a censored version of Time magazine; his family burning the American flag March 21, 1944 to be safe; his family storing carpets, silver, and jewelry for Jewish friends and hiding them in the university library; his mother being denounced, arrested, and released; his family leaving Debrecen in May 1944; witnessing Jews being rounded up; going to Budapest and living next door to a Swedish protected house; the closing of schools in the fall of 1944; his family going in December 1944 to Halle an der Saale, Germany, where his father taught in a medical school; being drafted into the Hungarian Army in March 1945 and riding on a train for two months to avoid finding his unit; finding his brother on May 8, 1945 in Mitterald; being rounded up by Patton’s troops and sent to Ludwigshafen, Germany; being sent to a POW camp in Heilbronn; going to Gottingen in the British Occupation Zone; sailing to the United States in December 1949 on the USS Harry Taylor; earning a Ph.D. in chemistry at Johns Hopkins; researching cancer at NIH; marrying a survivor of Bergen-Belsen; and his feelings about not being officially Jewish.

    Oral history interview with Robert Kertesz

    Oral History

    Robert Kertesz, born in 1933, discusses his childhood in Budapest, Hungary; antisemitism in Budapest; his family; his religious upbringing; being stuck in Hungary due to travel restrictions; his father being conscripted into the Hungarian Army; the Hungarian Nazis and Arrow Cross Party members in his neighborhood; the increasing antisemitism and abuse; how the ghetto grew in 1943; finding safe houses for children; escaping from the ghetto after his parent’s deportation; hiding in his Christian aunt’s home; returning to Budapest to escape violence; returning to the ghetto; living conditions in the ghetto; liberation by the Soviets; looting by the Soviet Army in the city; working as a guide and interpreter for Russians; his parents’ return; living in a displaced persons camp; immigrating to the United States in 1948; and his life in the U.S.

    Oral history interview with Fred Kahn

    Oral History

    Fred Kahn, born December 19, 1932 in Wiesbaden, Germany, describes being raised until he was six years old by an aunt (Rosa Nassauer) in Wehen, Germany; his older brother, Walter; his Christian friend, Walter Kaltwasser, who protected him from young Nazis; being raised religious by his aunt and uncle; his grandfather dying in 1938; being sent after the Munich Agreement to Aachen, Germany, where he crossed the border and joined his parents and brother in Verviers, Belgium; his father’s successful career as playing bridge; his aunt and uncle being sent to Łódź, Poland; starting school in Belgium; his parents and life in Verviers; going to Liege and Brussels in May 1940 with his family; returning to Verviers; Jews having to register; the small right-wing party, Rexiste, which collaborated with the Nazis; his father being interrogated; getting false identities with the last name Jejeune; being taught Catholic prayers; getting scarlet fever in the spring of 1942; leaving his school after getting in a fight; his principal helping him; going into hiding and the various ways he entertained himself; moving from village to village in 1943; getting a job in 1944, carrying milk; being liberated in September 1944 by the American Army; life when he was in hiding; his mother’s accused of being a German spy and arrested; the Battle of the Bulge; events he heard about involving the underground; factors that helped him survive; developing a sense of humor; and considering Verviers his hometown.

    Oral history interview with Susan Warsinger

    Oral History

    Susan Warsinger (née Hilsinrath), born in 1929, discusses her family and childhood in Bad Kreuznach, Germany; her memories of Kristallnacht; escaping to Paris, France; being homeless; fleeing to Versailles when the Germans invaded; going to Château des Morelles, a home for homeless children; her schooling; getting tickets to the United States from the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society; immigrating to the U.S. in 1941; her life in the U.S.; her feelings about returning home to Europe; and her life since the war.

    Oral history interview with Arnold Weiss

    Oral History

    Hans Arnold Wangesheim, born in Nuremberg, Germany on July 25, 1924, describes his parents divorcing in 1930; his mother placing him in a very strict Jewish orphanage in Furth; his encounters with Hitler youth; getting passage on a Kindertransport with help of Quakers in 1938; going to Chicago, IL then Milwaukee, WI; running away from a Jewish orphanage and being placed with a family in Janesville, WI; attending a watchmaker’s college; enlisting in 1942 in the Army Air Corps and being a B-17 tail gunner; his training plane crashing in Utah in 1943 and being severely injured; going to OSS (Office of Strategic Services) in Washington in 1944; going in late 1944 to Paris, France then Germany; crossing the Rhine with the 4th Division behind German lines picking up mail from agents; seeing Nuremberg bombed; going back to Furth; going in April 1945 to Dachau to get important political prisoners, including the former French Prime Minister Leon Blum; locating the prisoners in Innsbruck, Austria; his counterintelligence work for de-Nazification and working with Hugh Trevor-Roper to hunt down Wilhelm Zander; being assigned to trace enemy assets including Nazi treasures and Reichsbank gold; his work interrogating Germans, doing anti-Soviet intelligence, and being sent to Czechoslovakia as a contact for Hungarian agents; returning to the US, attending school, and working for the US Treasury; and working for a law firm.

    Oral history interview with Sia Hertsberg

    Oral History

    Sia Hertsberg (née Izrailewitsch), born June 8, 1927 in Riga, Latvia, describes her early family life and schooling; the Jewish community and the state of antisemitism in pre-war Riga; the 1940 Russian invasion; her family’s persecution at the hands of the Russian communists; the 1941 Nazi occupation and implementation of Nazi race laws; the burning of Riga’s synagogues; the help her family received from non-Jewish friends; the establishment and the later liquidation of the Riga ghetto; how a Latvian soldier attempted to rape her; avoiding the Rumbula massacre; working as a seamstress in a Reichskommissariat workshop; her family’s transport to the Kaiserwald concentration camp; how her father saved her sister several times by hiding her amidst the trash or in a pot of soup when the Nazis were looking for young children; the Nazis’ theft of her childhood; the normalcy of discussing death; her family’s transport via ship and cattle car to Stutthof; the typhus epidemic and her work carrying the dead to the crematorium; her mother’s death; her and her sister’s escape from a death march; seeking shelter and being turned away by Polish peasants; liberation by Russian soldiers on March 23, 1945; hospitalization and her sister’s death; her deep depression at losing her family; her hospitalization in Kolomna, Russia; her return to Riga and reunion with her father; falling in love with her future husband; their attempts to illegally immigrate to the United States and her father’s subsequent imprisonment by the Russians; the birth of her two sons; finishing her schooling; her husband’s death; her move to Chicago, Illinois and her post-war life in the United States; and her father’s death on the same day as her sister, thirty years later.

    Oral history interview with Chava Frajhof

    Oral History

    Chava Frajhof (née Geister), born September 20, 1923 in Belzyce, Poland, discusses her family; the German invasion of Poland in 1939; hiding from the Germans; paying the Judenrat to be assigned work in Będzin, Poland; working as a seamstress; being sent to Kraśnik, Poland in 1943; being liberated by the Soviets; fleeing to Lublin, Poland; having a family; going to Frankfurt, Germany then Berlin, Germany; and immigrating to Brazil in 1953 to join her family.

    Oral history interview with Israel Frajhof

    Oral History

    Israel Frajhof, born March 3, 1920 in Krasnik (near Lublin), Poland, describes experiencing violent antisemitism in 1933; the establishment of a ghetto in the fall of 1942; the typhus epidemic and conditions in the ghetto; working outside the ghetto; the deportation of old men, women and children deported to Majdanek and Treblinka in December 1942; trying to become a policeman but being declined permission; doing carpentry work for Germans making furniture; appels, beatings, and sleeping in the synagogue; meeting his future wife Chava Geister, who was in Krasnik camp; the Russians’ arrival in Lublin on July 22,1944; the death march to Germany and escaping into the forest for 10 days; meeting up with Chava and going to Krasnik; going to Lublin; getting married in January 1946; going to Berlin , Germany and being helped by the UNRRA; going to Frankfurt, Germany; going to Brazil in 1953; visiting Majdanek in 1986; and living for his wife and children.

    Oral history interview with Edward Novakoff

    Oral History

    Edward Novakoff, born in 1926 in Boston, Massachusetts, discusses his Ukrainian and Lithuanian immigrant parents; enlisting in the U.S. Army in December 1943; being shipped to Marseilles, France with the 90th Infantry Division; seeing his company wiped out in November 1944; fighting in southern Germany in January 1945; arriving at Flossenbürg in May 1945 and seeing the conditions and the survivors; his transfer to the 26th Regiment, 1st Infantry in August 1945; guarding prisoners for the Nuremburg Trials; having contact with Nuremburg prisoners; returning to the U.S. in December 1945; his life after the war; and helping to create the largest Jewish cemetery in the Boston area.

    Oral history interview with Celia Feldschuh

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Nicole Yancey

    Oral History

    Nicole Yancey (née Guggenheim), born July 26, 1941 in Saint-Amand-Mont-Rond, France, describes having one sister, Nanette, born November 1938; being separated from her family when she was two years old and sent to a farm to live in a safe and secure environment; still today calling the farmer and his wife her real grandparents; members of the French Resistance coming in for meals because the farm was close to the demarcation line and there was lots of Resistance activity; her daily routine of working, hiding, and eating; how her relationships were all very harmonious; being moved back to Orléans, France when she was five years old and starting school; the severe personality changes of her parents because of their experiences during the Holocaust; the torment her father experienced because he was not able to save his brothers from being murdered; being sponsored by a French/American agency to attend William and Mary College, where she met her husband; remaining in the Tidewater, VA area; converting to Catholicism because her husband is Catholic as are her children; her position now as Consul for the French Embassy in Norfolk, VA; and her assertion that tragedies like the Holocaust will continue as long as people do not learn to accept each other and their differences.

    Oral history interview with Jaffa Munk

    Oral History

    Jaffa Munk (née Noemi Donath), born April 10, 1931 IN Ónod, Hungary, describes her father Philippe, who was a Rabbi, and her mother Olga Shick Donath; having one brother, Joseph, and one sister, Esther Judith; living a very normal life with a family that was religious yet open-minded and encouraged academics; the many changes that began in 1942 and 1943; being moved in May 1944 to the ghetto, where her father was put in charge; being sent to Auschwitz; the brutal arrival and her father’s last words to her: “Wherever you go, continue to believe in God;” being marched to Birkenau, which was the very last time she saw her mother; being selected by Mengele in September 1944 to go to Bergen-Belsen and the grim living situation there; the forced evacuation in January 1945 and a subsequent six week death march; escaping to a forest and being liberated May 8, 1945 by Russian soldiers; eventually returning to Budapest, Hungary, where she lived at an Orthodox refugee orphanage facility, which was started by Esther Eckstein with education as the primary goal; going with a Zionist group with 1800 refugees to Palestine on a boat leaving from Bucharest, Romania and the refusal of the British to allow them entry, but finally being allowed to land at Haifa, Palestine; the break-out of war in 1947 and the desperate living conditions during the war; being taken to Tel Aviv, Israel, where there was less danger and where she attended teacher’s seminary; meeting her husband, who was in the Army; the birth of her first son, Gabriel, which was the highlight of her life because it meant continuation of her family; her teaching positions, starting with 1st grade, where students came from 30 different countries; and how her personal strengths are her sense of hope and having a positive outlook.

    Oral history interview with Frances Hirshfeld

    Oral History

    Frances Hirshfeld (née Frieda Miriam Rosenbloom), born in 1918, discusses her family and childhood in Opatów, Poland; moving to Zawiercie, Poland and its local Jewish population; the beginning of the war; her religious life; antisemitism; Kristallnacht; going into hiding in Ukraine and returning to Poland; the Judenrat; adjusting to anti-Jewish laws; moving into the ghetto; living conditions in the ghetto; being deported to Auschwitz in 1943; living conditions in Auschwitz; being moved to Birkenau; contracting typhoid fever and scabies; lack of medical care; bombings near the camp; returning to Auschwitz; hearing about the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; working in a munitions factory; being on a death march to Ravensbrück; escaping into a forest; liberation by the Soviets; immigrating to the United States in October 1946; her husband immigrating to the U.S. in 1949; visiting Poland; her feelings about Holocaust deniers; and her life after the war.

    Oral history interview with Moris Gluckman

    Oral History

    Moris Glukman, born in Suceava, Romania in 1924, discusses his childhood; the rise in antisemitism; deportation announcements; his arrival in Bessarabia (in Moldova and Ukraine) with his family and how the peasants took the belongings of the Romanian Jews; travel to Moravia, Czech Republic; living at the mercy of the Romanian Gendarmerie; the spread of typhus and diphtheria during the winter of 1941-1942; how the Ukranian police guarded the village in Moravia; the German entrance into Moravia; building bridges and excavating coal from open mines; his knowledge about events in Bessarabia and Russian positions and the approaching front; working in a Kolkhoz; being liberated by the Russians; his schooling in Bucharest, Romania; and immigration to the United States in 1983.

    Oral history interview with Margie Rosenthal

    Oral History

    Margie Rosenthal (née Margit Mary Miedzwinski), born July 19, 1927 in Gleiwitz, Germany (Gliwice, Poland), describes her prewar childhood; her family’s immigration to the Philippines after the Nazi invasion so that her father could continue in the lumber business; her pleasant life in the Philippines until the Japanese bombing in December 1941 and subsequent invasion; severe changes in their lives in Pasay City as Americans began bombing nearby Manila; the delay in her family’s move to the United States in 1948 as a result of immigration quotas; her life in San Francisco; and her marriage to her husband, Ernie.

    Oral history interview with Emma Mogilensky

    Oral History

    Emma Mogilensky (née Hubert), born May 22, 1923 in Kronheim, Bavaria, describes living in the house that had been built by her great-grandfather; having one brother and one sister; living in a friendly and peaceful community until Kristallnacht on November 9, 1938 when antisemitism became so violent that she was sent to Nuremberg, Germany; enrolling in a very strict, all Jewish high school; moving to Augsberg, Germany after her father was released from Dachau; the children’s transport, going to Munich, Germany and being transferred to a boat; finally arriving in London, England, where she and the other children were chosen for English homes such that not one of them would become a public charge; being sent to live with a couple, both physicians, who were extremely helpful; attending school again where English Literature became her best subject; being a Fire Watcher at St. Paul’s Cathedral and joining the British Army when she was 17; antisemitism in the Army; being a cook for 2,000 men; receiving her GED; subsequently attending college on the GI Bill; a trip to Israel with her children after her husband’s death; finding that the cemetery where her grandparents were buried was not desecrated and finding their graves; visiting her foster parents in England every year; and her serious commitment to speaking about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Isaiah Henig

    Oral History

    Isaiah Henig (né Yeshiah Henig), born in 1915, discusses his childhood in Szydlowiec, Poland; his family and the Jewish community; his religious upbringing; the absence of antisemitism before the war; changing anti-Jewish attitudes after the German occupation; the outbreak of the war and changes in daily life; being conscripted for forced labor; the creation of the ghetto; living conditions in the ghetto; working as a laborer in Starachowice, Poland; diseases in the camp; working to build replacement parts for machines; not believing reports about Jewish deaths; being deported to Birkenau in the summer of 1944; working in a factory; being moved to other concentration camps, including Mauthausen and Hannover; Allied bombing of the area; being deported to Bergen-Belsen; living conditions in the camp; his job building cannons; liberation by the British; moving to a displaced persons camp; immigrating to the United States in 1951; his life after the war; and his feelings about what happened.

    Oral history interview with Ida Henig

    Oral History

    Ida Henig (née Markowicz), born in 1924, discusses her family and childhood in Lódź, Poland; Łódź’s Jewish community and economy; not experiencing antisemitism before the war; changing anti-Jewish attitudes when the Germans invaded; fleeing to Częstochowa, Poland; working in the ghetto; not believing stories of mass murder; the Jewish police; liberation by the Soviets in January 1945; going to Germany; coming to the United States in the 1950s; the fates of her family members; and her feelings about the Holocaust and war.

    Oral history interview with Marcel Drimer

    Oral History

    Marcel Drimer (b. Marceli Drimmer), born in 1934, discusses his childhood in Drohobych, Poland (present day Ukraine); his family; his religious upbringing; life before the war; the Russian occupation; the German invasion in 1941; the looting of Jewish property; the deportations in 1942; moving into the ghetto; the fates of his family members; Ukrainian and German police; the Judenrat; hiding in an attic for a week; escape plans being postponed due to the death of his father; how his female relatives were saved by a woman who was recognized as a righteous gentile; their living conditions while in hiding; liberation by the Soviets; adjusting to life after the war; his education; difficult living conditions in Poland; post-war anti-Semitism; immigrating to the United States in 1961; his family going to Israel; and his feelings about the war, Poland, and anti-Semitism.

    Oral history interview with Michael Silberstein

    Oral History

    Michael Silberstein (né Mieczyslaw Silberstein), born in 1930 in Grudziadz, Poland, discusses his family; life before the war; the arrival of the German Army when he was nine years old; moving to Łódź, Poland; the establishment of the Łódź ghetto; being an errand boy and getting arrested in 1942; escaping arrest; living conditions in the ghetto; being deported to Birkenau in the summer of 1944; being sent on a death march in January 1945; arriving in Mauthausen; conditions and life in Mauthausen; liberation by the Americans; reuniting with his family; meeting family in England; immigrating to the United States in1952; being drafted into the U.S. Army; and his life after the war.

    Oral history interview with Joan Schwab

    Oral History

    Joan Schwab (née Nussbaum), born on March 24, 1926, describes living in the Tiergarten area of Berlin, Germany; her memories of Kristallnacht and how two men came for her father; being placed on a Children’s Transport to England on May 21, 1939; staying with Norman and Elsie Denham and going to secondary school and Hebrew school; her brother joining her in August 1939; evacuating in September to Chichester; conditions in the home, where she shared a bed with four girls and showered every two weeks; graduating from high school in 1944 and going back to Denhams in London; sleeping in an air raid shelter when V2 rockets attacked; going after the war to the Joint Distribution Committee in Munich, Germany and finding out that her parents perished in Auschwitz and her grandfather died in Theresienstadt; and immigrating to the United States in 1947.

    Oral history interview with Erwin Deutscher

    Oral History

    Erwin Deutscher, born on January 28, 1923 in Vienna, Austria, describes being raised with thorough religious training; being in the Zionist Youth group, HaShomer HaDati; how his maternal grandfather had gone to the United States in 1898 to Oklahoma City, OK; his Bar Mitzvah in 1936; hearing about Hitler’s arrival on March 11, 1938; his father’s dairy business closing; his mother being arrested; getting notice that his youth group was going to go to Palestine and meeting Eichmann at the emigration office with his father; conditions getting worse in Vienna; traveling with 25 others by train to Trieste and by boat to Haifa and arriving October 24, 1938; going to Mikveh Israel agricultural school for two years then to Bnai Akiva yeshiva for another two years; working for Haganah and meeting his wife; fighting in the Israeli War of Independence; his father being taken to Dachau after Kristallnacht and then to Buchenwald from June 1939 to January 1940; his parents immigrating to the United States; his life after the war working for a life insurance company; and getting a Ph. D. in Hebrew letters at Hebrew Union College.

    Oral history interview with George Pick

    Oral History

    George Pick, born in Budapest, Hungary on March 28, 1934, describes his very large extended family; his father losing his job in May 1939 and being sent on labor brigade in September 1940 for three months; seeing German tanks in the streets on March 9, 1944 and the subsequent anti-Jewish laws after including wearing the yellow star and not being allowed to attend school after April; his father having to leave again; being ordered to move to special Jewish houses in the summer of 1944; the air raids in Budapest and the massive bombings on July 2, 1944; his father’s return; he and his mother joining his father in hiding in a uniform factory building in November 1944; the factory being raided December 2, 1944 and bribing their way out; being taken to a Red Cross building and running away; going to the ghetto on December 14, 1944 and his father being in the ghetto police; the siege of Budapest; Wallenberg saving Jews from a massacre in January 1945; liberation; starting school; his Bar Mitzvah in 1947; attending university; going to Austria and then the United States, where his uncle lived; working for the Navy as mechanical engineer and retiring in 1996; his three marriages and not having children; and his commitment to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Hedi Pope

    Oral History

    Hedi Pope (née Politzer), born March 18, 1920 in Vienna, Austria, describes her prosperous family, which was neither religious nor political; wanting to be a dancer as a child; the increase in anti-Semitism in Vienna; her memories, day-by-day, of Hitler’s invasion of Austria in March 1938; rising fears to speak out about Hitler’s actions; her memories of Kristallnacht; her father being sent to Dachau; the difficulty of getting all the documents to go to the United States; immigrating to the U.S. in January 1939; living in Newark, NJ; joining the Refugee Artist’s Group as a dancer; going to Miami University in Ohio and graduating in 1942; having two children; maintaining a dance studio in Alexandria, VA until 1980; and working with the volunteer corps at USHMM.

    Oral history interview with Bella Simon Pasternak

    Oral History

    Bella Simon Pasternak, born in 1928, discusses her liberation from Auschwitz by Russians; walking home to Hungary during the winter; being hospitalized with frostbite and starvation; living in a displaced persons camp in Innsbruck, Austria; immigrating to the United States in 1946; her first impressions of the U.S.; Americans’ disbelief at her experiences; meeting her husband, who was also a survivor; her religious views becoming more orthodox; desiring to immigrate to Israel; coping with the Holocaust many years after it occurred and still experiencing nightmares; and how important her grandchildren are to her.

    Oral history interview with Marion Friedman

    Oral History

    Marion Friedman (b. Traute Marion Julia Georgia Sulimas), born in 1922, discusses her childhood in Hamburg, Germany; being raised with her Christian mother and Jewish father; her parents’ upbringings; celebrating both Christian and Jewish holidays; her brothers’ immigrations to China and the United States; the Aryanization of her father’s bank; her mother’s resourcefulness; receiving a visa along with her mother to go to the U.S.; being sent to the U.S. on her own because her mother decided to stay with her father; learning of her parents’ arrest and deaths; adjusting to life in the U.S.; meeting her husband; returning to Germany long after the war; meeting her German family; and dealing with her losses on a daily basis.

    Oral history interview with Elizabeth Strassburger

    Oral History

    Elizabeth Strassburger, born in 1938, discusses her childhood in a small town near Zakopane, Poland; her father’s arrest and imprisonment in Siberia; being forced into the Tarnow ghetto with her mother and grandmother; watching her grandmother being taken by the Germans; hiding under an assumed Christian identity; being drugged and hidden in a basement during dangerous times; the family who hid her and her mother; believing she was a Catholic; her Catholic schooling; liberation by the Russians; learning she was Jewish after the war; being smuggled out of Poland with her mother; living at a Jewish orphanage with her mother in Germany; learning her father was alive; moving to Italy to be with her father; immigrating to England with her family; immigrating to the United States; adjusting to life as a teenager in the U.S.; her marriage; studying social work in college; her volunteer work; and her family.

    Oral history interview with Jadwiga Dziekonski

    Oral History

    Jadwiga Dziekonski, born in 1919, discusses her family’s emigration from Kiev, Ukraine to Warsaw, Poland in 1921 because of the revolution; her Catholic upbringing; attending public school; following the political situation in Germany; meeting her husband; the German invasion and occupation; her father’s exile in London, England as a member of the Bank of Poland; moving to Warsaw with her husband; her husband’s role in the Home Army; her daughter’s birth in 1943; sheltering two Jewish women in her mother’s apartment; the Polish underground’s participation in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; the Warsaw Uprising; her husband’s arrest and imprisonment in Bergen-Belsen and Gross-Rosen; liberation; readjusting to life after the war; escaping to London through Sweden in 1947; leaving her mother behind; reuniting with her father; immigrating to Detroit in 1951; visiting Poland in 1988 to see her husband’s family; her feelings about being Polish; how she feels about Jewish people and German people; and her two visits to Israel.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Harvey

    Oral History

    Ruth Harvey, born in 1928, describes growing up with mixed Jewish and Christian heritage; her childhood in Berlin, Germany; being expelled from public school in 1938; attending a private Jewish school; witnessing the burning of Berlin’s temple during Kristallnacht; hearing Hitler’s speeches over loudspeakers; leaving Germany in 1939 with her mother to meet her father in Cuba; immigrating to New York in 1940 with her parents; growing up in New York City; moving to Washington, DC for a job with the State Department; getting married and having children; having a sense of confusion about her religious identity; why she chose not to visit any concentration camps; and volunteering at the USHMM.

    Oral history interview with Thomas B. Gardiner

    Oral History

    Thomas Brown Gardiner, born on March 26, 1920 in St. Louis County, Missouri, describes being raised by his widowed mother; life during the Depression; working for a house painter as a teen in St. Louis; getting married in 1940; working for a manufacturer that made small parts for the M1 rifle; being drafted in 1944; training at Camp Robinson in Arkansas; being sent to England in the fall of 1944; going to France; being assigned to the 45th Infantry Division; seeing action in the Vosges Mountains and Alsace-Lorraine; participating in the capture of Schaffenburg; going through Nuremberg and Munich; liberating Dachau as a member of L Company in the 157th Infantry Regiment; guarding the camp while waiting for the military police to arrive; billeting in apartment buildings outside of the camp, where the Nazi officers had lived; typhus in the camp and the high death rate of the survivors; speaking with the survivors and being shown the camp by them; going to Munich then Augsburg for a month; being sent to Le Havre, France; returning to the US; working in military camps in Texas until his release; the effect seeing Dachau had on him; and how he feels stronger in his Christian faith.

    Oral history interview with Roberta Jones

    Oral History

    Roberta Jones, born October 15, 1921 in St. Louis, Missouri, discusses growing up during the Great Depression; enlisting as a nurse in the United States Army; being commissioned as a second lieutenant with the 3rd Army and assigned to the 121st Semi-Mobile Evacuation Hospital; traveling by ship to England and helping in a hospital there; traveling to Luxembourg and then into Germany under dangerous conditions; going to Buchenwald; seeing a crematorium, stacked bodies, and starved prisoners still in uniforms; being offered bread by the prisoners; seeing a lampshade made of human skin in the office of a Nazi official; visiting a smaller liberated concentration camp and watching as American soldiers distributed clothing to naked prisoners; traveling with her hospital to a concentration camp near Linz, Austria (possibly Mauthausen); female nurses being kept outside of the camp fence as men worked inside the camp; meeting newly-liberated English prisoners of war who had been captured at the Battle of Dunkirk; returning to the United States and working at McCormack General Hospital in Pasadena, California; the difficulties of severely disfigured patients integrating into the community in Pasadena; marrying her husband; working at Camp Swift in Texas and Camp Polk in Louisiana, and, during the Korean War, in a military hospital in Michigan; encountering Holocaust deniers; and her insistence that her children know everything about her experience so that they can continue to spread the truth about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Christine Cohen

    Oral History

    Christine Cohen, born April 27, 1940 in the Warsaw ghetto, describes living in the ghetto until 1942 when they escaped; using forged papers showing that they were Christian; having one brother, born in 1948; being sent alone to live with a farm family; being helped and protected by an aristocratic woman, who had befriended an old German officer while she worked for the underground resistance; living with a series of families and caretakers; living in Walbrzych, Poland; not knowing she was Jewish until she was 10 years old and not admitting to it until she moved to Israel (seven years later) in 1957; visiting Germany and Poland after the war and going to Auschwitz, all of which was very difficult; wanting to stay in Israel but because of her parents, moving to the United States; the bitterness she still feels about having her entire extended family taken from her; the recurring nightmares and physical ailments that are all tension-related; and her current life in San Antonio, TX, where there are only a few survivors of her mother’s generation.

    Oral history interview with Hugh Jenkins

    Oral History

    Hugh Jenkins, born December 29, 1914 in Lester, England, describes being the youngest of eight siblings, whose father was a Welsh minister; working before World War II with Quakers and being a conscientious objector even before the war; moving to London, England in 1944 to take part in training at a Quaker institute; being sent to Antwerp, Belgium after the training to do relief work; going to Belsen, Germany on April 22, 1944, soon after the camp had been discovered and the horrific scene; the various response processes at the camp; setting up a hospital, known as the “new camp,” maintaining a first aid station, and finding food; eventually being sent to Poland to be in charge of another camp; how even now he has a sense of desolation in how war is used to settle problems; working as the overseas secretary for the British Friends Relief Service until 1948, when he went to Philadelphia, PA to work with the American Friends Service Committee; and being sent to Washington, DC to be the director of the Foreign Student Service Center.

    Oral history interview with Rene Edgar Tressler

    Oral History

    Rene Edgar Tressler, born April 16, 1927 in Strakonice, Czech Republic, describes his childhood in Strakonice; his parents and brother; escaping to Prague, Czech Republic to live with his grandparents; his brother’s selection to be on the Board of Elders at Theresienstadt; how Theresienstadt was used as a showcase for the Red Cross; his deportation to Auschwitz; his camp number; being moved to Birkenau; his movement to Blechhammer camp; his experiences on a death march in February 1945; his arrival at Buchenwald; reuniting with his parents and brother after the liberation; escaping Czechoslovakia in 1956; immigrating to the United States; and authoring several books.

    Oral history interview with Stefan Wohl

    Oral History

    Stefan Wohl, born February 4, 1934 in Vienna, Austria, discusses the Anschluss in 1938; leaving Vienna through Switzerland to Kraków, Poland; traveling with 14 family members in September 1939 to Jaroslav, Zloczow, and Kolomyja; being captured with his father in November 1939 while trying to cross the border; being released and going to Zloczow; being on a transport for six weeks with his mother, sister, and other relatives in July 1940; arriving in the Yakutsk, Siberia labor camp settlement; leaving in May 1941 by train through Moscow to Lvov where they were reunited with their father; the German invasion on June 22, 1941; going with his sister to a farm in Jaroslav; going to Budapest, Hungary via Monkacs, Hungary (Mukacheve, Ukraine) in the fall 1942; changing their name to Wolinski and pretending to be Catholic; going to Leanyfalu in 1943 and staying for a year; the family going to Seged (Szeged), Hungary; being captured and jailed; being released and staying with an uncle in Budapest; his father’s illness; being liberated by Russians in January 1945; going back to Poland in the spring 1945; going to Sweden in the summer 1946; sailing to Brazil in October 1946; attending school and a university in the United States; and being a film producer in Brazil.

    Oral history interview with Yehuda Adam

    Oral History

    Yehuda Adam (né George Strn), born on July 3, 1929 in Budapest, Hungary, discusses being raised in a reform Jewish household; being put into forced labor in Budapest; receiving a Schutzpasse and his family working for Raoul Wallenberg; being liberated by the Soviets in January 15, 1945; going to Palestine in 1949; going to the United States in 1962; and living in both Israel and the US.

    Oral history interview with Arlette de Long

    Oral History

    Arlette de Long, born June 15, 1937 in Brocourt, Somme, France; describes her parents’ medical practice; her early love of the church and uncertainly whether her family was Jewish; villagers’ willingness to maintain friendship with the family because her father was the only physician in the village; having no memory of life before the war; the liberation of France; moving to a suburb of Paris, where she attended Protestant churches rather than synagogue; father’s unwillingness to discuss the Holocaust; her own reluctance to discuss the Holocaust until her sixteen year old daughter insisted that she talk about it; moving to the United States; her work as a psychotherapist for underprivileged children; and her feeling that her story is one of hope, compassion, and gratitude.

    Oral history interview with Eva Adam

    Oral History

    Eva Adam, born September 3, 1932 in Budapest, Hungary, describes her Orthodox Jewish family; her family’s awareness of what was happening to European Jews; their reluctance to leave Hungary; her father and brother’s membership in the Jewish Legion; serving as adjunct personnel to the Hungarian Army; changes in their lives in the late 1930s and early 1940s; her family’s unawareness of concentration camps before 1944; the Arrow Cross Party taking over the Hungarian police; deteriorating conditions for Jews; the murder of Jews at the Danube River; conditions in the ghetto; her post-liberation search for family members; finding that only three of her thirty-six family members survived Auschwitz; leaving Budapest in 1949; living in Israel and then the United States in 1961; her plans to return to Israel in the future; her pride in being a Jew and a Hungarian; the value in caring about others; and her strong work ethic as an explanation of why she was able to survive.

    Oral history interview with Herbert Bitter

    Oral History

    Herbert Jerome Bitter, born August 4, 1919 in New York City, discusses his parents who were Romanian immigrants; growing up in a Jewish neighborhood in Manhattan; becoming more religious during his service in the United Sates Army from 1943 to 1945; his experiences at Ohrdruf in 1945 soon after the Germans evacuated the camp; seeing three U.S. generals, Eisenhower, Bradley, and Patton, at the camp on April 5, 1945; the generals’ return visit on April 12, 1945 with photographers; how the freed inmates at Ohrdruf were eager to tell their stories to the American liberators; the effect of witnessing the horrors of the Holocaust had on his Jewish identity; and his reluctance to talk about his experiences during the war, especially to children.

    Oral history interview with Rachel Goldfarb

    Oral History

    Rachel Goldfarb, born December 2, 1930 in Poland (now Dokshytsy, Belarus), discusses her life following her liberation by the Russians and her time living in the forests near Bialystok, Poland with her mother; working and living on Russian trains; traveling to Prussia to find shelter provided by various Jewish organizations and the Red Cross; traveling to Italy’s southern coast; attempting to board a ship to Palestine but being blockaded by British authorities; eventually getting to New York City in November 1947 after two and a half years in Italy; visiting Washington, DC after graduation from high school; taking a job with the District Court; attending George Washington University at night; meeting her husband, also a Holocaust survivor, and marrying in 1952; raising two children, both of whom are architects; finally visiting Israel; her good life in the United States; and her advice about valuing what you have in life.

    Oral history interview with Tania Rozmaryn

    Oral History

    Tania Rozmaryn, born on June 16, 1928 in Vilnius, Poland (present day Lithuania), discusses her family as strong Zionists; the changes that took place after the German occupation; family’s escape towards the eastern Russian border; working in the house of an SS officer and being offered guidance on survival; frightening years in the Kovno ghetto; going into hiding until 1944 when the ghetto was liquidated; her deportation with her mother to Stutthof; her mother’s struggles and strategies, trying to make her look less like a child so that she would be chosen for work; being sent to various work camps until March 1945 when they were liberated by the Russians and taken to Central Poland to a displaced persons camp; being sent to Germany with false documents to a kibbutz in Munich; going to the American Zone and teaching at a school in Bergen-Belsen in 1947; getting married in 1949; immigrating to the United States in 1950; graduating summa cum laude from the Teacher’s Institute and receiving an M.A. from Queens College in 1960; moving to Maryland in 1990 where she received an M.S. in Marriage and Family Counseling; nightmares about her Holocaust experiences; and her feelings about her Jewish faith.

    Oral history interview with Frank Ephraim

    Oral History

    Franz Gunter Ephraim, born February 19, 1931 in the Schöneberg district of Berlin, Germany, describes his family and being raised Jewish but not Orthodox; living an integrated life in the community until 1937 and his participation in the 1936 Olympics events; how Kristallnacht was the impetus for his family immigrating to the Philippines; attending a Hebrew school in Manila before the attack on Pearl Harbor and the Japanese invasion of the Philippines; the politics in Manila; experiencing an open Jewish life; their favorite playing areas, holidays, their several living spaces, and the daily routine in Manila; the attack on Pearl Harbor and his memories of the alarms, airplanes, gas masks, and lack of school for about a year; how after the US declared war there were more air raids and an exodus from the Philippines began; how the US was closed to Jews who still had family in Germany and Europe and his family could not go to the US; the Japanese invasion of the Philippines; the many wartime restrictions, including food shortages, looting, changes in currency, and a new governmental organization; how 1944 was the year when things were really deteriorated and the people were starving; the daily air raids from B24 bombers; the Japanese systematically burning down the city of Manila; how February 1945 brought total chaos and there was no food for several weeks; the liberation of Manila by US forces; leaving the Philippines on November 19, 1946; arriving in San Francisco, CA where relatives were waiting for them, along with HIAF; the closeness of the Manila Jewish community in San Francisco; attending UC Berkeley until the Korean War when he was drafted into the Army and sent to Europe as an interpreter; becoming a US citizen in 1952; his philosophy that the importance of Jews as a nation is far more important than Jews as a religion and that self-reliance is the most important quality to have; graduating from UC Berkeley in 1957; and working for a naval architect specializing in submarines, United Airlines, and the Maritime Administration in Washington, DC.

    Oral history interview with Peter Phillips

    Oral History

    Ernst Pieter Philipps, born December 5, 1931 in Essen, Germany, describes his twin brothers, who were three years younger; moving to Prague, Czech Republic in 1936 because of his father’s position with his company; life in Prague, which was normal until the Germans occupied Prague beginning April 1939; moving to Genoa, Italy and spending six months there; relocating by an Italian steamer to Quito, Ecuador, where living conditions were rather primitive and where at their second address they experienced antisemitism for the first time; spending two years in Ecuador; relocating to New York City, NY, where the instances of antisemitism directed at him were violent and ugly; his parents moving back to Rotterdam by 1950 while he remained behind in the house his parents had bought in Queens; attending City College of New York for five years and in 1955 joining the US Army and being sent to Germany where, among other duties, he worked as a teacher and Boy Scout leader for American and German boys; after leaving the Army, working first for the New York Times, a newspaper in Danbury, CT, and Business Week magazine; going to Washington, DC to work for McGraw Hill for 20 years; his experiences as a volunteer at the USHMM; and how he believes his experiences as a Jew have affected his outlook.

    Oral history interview with Joseph Ichiuji

    Oral History

    Joseph Ichiuji describes his parents as having immigrated to the US in the early 1900s; his father being a truck farmer and then owning a shoe repair business; working in a fish cannery and living in Fresno, CA until Executive Order 9066, which required that all Japanese Americans be evacuated to internment camps; being sent by train and truck to Flagstaff, Arizona, where they were assigned to barracks number three of the internment camp at Poston, AZ; conditions at the camp, which was run like an army installation with strict regimentation; volunteering for the 442 Combat Team, formed in 1943 and consisting solely of Japanese American soldiers who had families living in internment camps; fighting in Italy at the front lines north of Rome; liberating Livorno, Italy; helping liberate a subcamp of Dachau; conditions of prisoners still alive at the camp; helping two Lithuanian prisoners reconnect with important people in their lives; going home in December 1945 to find his parents released from the internment camp; helping his father with his business until May 1946 when he went to Washington, DC, where he worked in government service for 37 years; and the reunion of Japanese American soldiers in Los Angeles, CA, which a few of the survivors of Dachau attended.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Horowitz

    Oral History

    Ruth Horowitz (née Salzburg), born March 23, 1930 in Hamburg, Germany, describes her Polish parents Isaac Salzberg and Rose R. Kleinert and her sister; life in Hamburg, where they lived until November 1938; leaving Hamburg two days before Kristallnacht; how Hamburg was very open to Jews until Hitler’s regime, though she experienced many instances of antisemitism; being fascinated with the 1936 Olympics; how her father’s efforts to leave Germany began in 1936 and finally succeeded when he dramatically threatened to commit suicide at the US Consul if the visas were not granted; how crossing the Atlantic was very difficult, with cold and seasickness, but they arrived and went to Detroit, MI for a short while, then to New York City, NY, and finally to Washington, DC; learning to speak English by going to lots of movies; her father’s death at age 54; her mother’s transformation from being a housewife to running her husband’s jewelry business after he died; the wartime antisemitism, the problem of quotas, the Nuremburg trials, and the State of Israel; getting married in 1950; traveling to Germany in 1995; and her views on present day Germany.

    Oral history interview with Hermann Kosak

    Oral History

    Hermann Kosak, born May 2, 1924 in Vienna, Austria, describes his younger sister, Margaret; how antisemitism was pervasive and being involved in instances of physical violence as early as kindergarten; the growth of the Nazi movement in Austria; the Anschluss in March 1938; seeing Hitler arriving in Vienna in his car; how quickly the Jews were affected by the Nazi’s changes; Kristallnacht and being arrested the next morning; trying to get out of Vienna at age 14 and finally getting to Brussels, Belgium with his mother; the Germans attack on Belgium; how enrolling in art school after the invasion was the most important thing he did; learning survival, watchfulness, and self-reliance at age 16; beginning a diary on May 9, 1940, describing daily life, and keeping the diary until three weeks before liberation; how out of 50 family members, 43 were killed in camps; finally getting visas for him and his sister in November 1947 by forcing his way into the US Embassy and leaving for the United States; arriving in New York City, NY; being a painting instructor; being drafted, released to Reserves, working for a while, and being called back for the Korean War; being married and eventually getting a job with Boeing as an illustrator; and his views on the effects of the Holocaust on humanity.

    Oral history interview with Dolly Bestandig

    Oral History

    Dolly Bestandig (née Hirsch), born July 24, 1939 in Vilna (Vilnius), Lithuania, discusses her family, which had been in Lithuania for 11 generations; her father, who was a mathematical engineer, and her mother, who was a concert pianist; how her parents were both very religious and wealthy; being sent to the Vilna ghetto, the hardship of which marked the beginning of her mother’s psychological changes; the presence of 90 members of her mother’s family in the ghetto; how at age five, after living in the Minsk ghetto, she and her mother were sent to Auschwitz, where her mother managed to save her life by hiding her in a garbage can during the day while her mother worked; being moved to Bergen-Belsen with her mother and father after four months, where she was again hidden in a garbage can every day until liberation on April 15, 1945 by English soldiers; being sent to Sweden for medical care; being hospitalized in Gothenburg and then in Stockholm, where surgery on her palate was performed; leaving Sweden in 1947 and going to New York, where an uncle met her family; going to Mexico City, where two uncles were waiting; how her mother’s psychological state was deteriorating and she died in 1958; having flashbacks to her life in the camps; going to the Margaret Sanger Institute in New York City in 1967, where she received counseling help and tuberculosis was found throughout her body; recovering and adopting two children; being the Sub-Director of Hebrew instruction at the Yeshiva in Mexico City; and her feelings about her survival.

    Oral history interview with Goldie Gendelman

    Oral History

    Goldie Gendelman, born November 17, 1933 in Lechowichi (possibly Lyakhavichy, Belarus), Poland near Baranowichi (possibly Baranovichi, Belarus), discusses her parents, Chaim and Chana Wolochiwianski; growing up in an extremely Orthodox family; being raised to speak Polish and Yiddish; her family’s attempt to immigrate to the United States; how she and her family made it to Cuba and stayed there for 11 years; living in Regla, Cuba; her struggles to communicate in Spanish; being run over by a bus in Cuba; how she and her family finally were able to immigrate to the United States in 1948; her paternal uncle in the United States who assisted with the immigration process; her experience with antisemitism in Poland and Cuba; graduating from high school in the United States; volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum; and her feelings about leaving Poland, living in Cuba, and starting a new life in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Rhoda Kuflik

    Oral History

    Rhoda Kuflik (née Ruzenka Husen), born in October 1937 in Kitev, Poland (now Kuty, Ukraine), describes living in the Kuty ghetto; escaping to Romania and hiding there; being liberated by the Soviets; and immigrating to the United States in 1948.

    Oral history interview with William Hess

    Oral History

    William Hess was born William Verna on August 8, 1921 in Stuttgart, Germany. He was an only child and lived a pleasant life there. Despite the Nuremberg laws, he was permitted to continue his schooling as his father served during World War I. Nevertheless, they lost the service of their maid. William experienced little anti-Semitism in Germany but knew that Hitler made anti-Semitic speeches and had newspaper articles written against the Jews. His father's business suffered little from the boycotting but he sold it in 1938. Anti-Semitism was more severe in the outlying towns than in Stuttgart. William studied English for two years before immigrating to Danville, Illinois with his uncle's assistance in 1937. He had difficulty adjusting to the US so had an English tutor. Additionally, he had difficulty living on his wages of $12.50 as $9 went toward room and board and he also had to cover tutoring and transportation expenses. Kristallnacht and his father's internment in Dachau influenced his parents to leave Germany in 1939 for Danville.

    Oral history interview with Jutta Levy

    Oral History

    Jutta Levy, born in 1926 in Hamburg, Germany, describes growing up in a pleasant upper middle class family in a large Jewish community; listening to Hitler’s speeches on the radio and seeing him on a school field trip; witnessing Nazi book burning; learning of the death of Hindenburg; drastic changes in Germany after 1933; living in fear as children were taken from school and acquaintances disappeared; father’s dramatic pleading for visas to leave Germany; obtaining passage on the last train from Hamburg on November 6, 1938; traveling to Paris, France and then to Cherbourg, France, from which her family sailed to New York on the Queen Mary; arriving on November 11, 1938; learning about life in concentration camps from family members who survived the Holocaust; and her return to Hamburg and visit to Bergen-Belsen as an adult.

    Oral history interview with Wolfgang Mueller

    Oral History

    Wolfgang Mueller, born in Hanover, Germany on March 10, 1919, discusses his father’s role as a leader in the Jewish community and being head of B’nai B’rith; being aware of the Nazis at an early stage and seeing posters on kiosks denouncing Jews; refusing to say “Heil Hitler” in school and being advised by the principal to leave the country; going to London, England the summer after his Bar Mitzvah (1932); attending Ewell School and going back to Germany on vacations, pretending he was English; attending Cranbrook School with funding from a relative, Max Nordhaus, in the United States; receiving an affidavit from Nordhaus and getting a visa to the US; arriving in the US July 26, 1936 and moving to New Mexico; his mother and sister emigrating; hearing about Kristallnacht; being drafted in September 1941 and being sent to Florida; being in the Signal Corps; applying to officer’s candidate school and being in a group that called themselves the fighting 614s; being made into an MP after his superiors found out he was from Germany; being stationed in Tampa, FL and Jacksonville, FL; getting his American citizenship; volunteering to go overseas; being stationed in England as a technical supply sergeant and a liaison with the RAF; working after V-E Day in the Air Technical Intelligence Office; interrogating prisoners in Czechoslovakia and Austria and engineers at Zeiss works; being in Nordhausen for an hour; translating V-2 documents; being discharged on January 11, 1947; getting married; working in the meat business, real estate, and as a wholesale fish company; being proud to be Jewish; and his dedication to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Klari Rudnai

    Oral History

    Klari Rudnai (née Takacs), born May 19, 1930 in Budapest, Hungary, describes her well-to-do family that was not at all religious; her older sister; her father, who was her hero, and her strict mother; how their cook was instrumental in saving their lives by getting counterfeit papers with non-Jewish names for them and by bringing them food as they hid in a one-room apartment in 1944; moving to a nice hotel and having to go to the hotel’s underground bunkers during all the bombing for almost nine months; her father’s seven siblings, who were all sent to Auschwitz; going back to the hotel, the Vadasqur, until it too was bombed; moving to a new villa in 1946; how when she was 19 years she was picked up by Russian soldiers in a jeep and had to fight her way out of an attack by them and was saved by American soldiers who took her to the hospital for a few days; marrying an American soldier and wanting to go to the United States; finishing high school; how the solitary military life and moving a lot to odd places didn’t suit her; divorcing her husband and moving back to Washington, DC; getting married in 1960 to a Jewish doctor, who had been in many concentration camps and was instrumental in getting her interested in her Jewish religion; volunteering at the USHMM in the Archives and Volunteer Services; enjoying all parts of talking to people and the volunteers in her job; and reading a lot of books and newspapers about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Jill Pauly

    Oral History

    Jill Pauly, born May 1, 1933 in Cologne, Germany, describes her large, very well-to-do country family; the efforts of her grandmother and uncle to get money to Holland and make arrangements for the family to get to Kenya, where they bought two cattle farms that eventually were very successful; wanting a more orthodox Jewish life after the war; moving to New York City then moving to Vineland, NJ; her family buying a chicken farm, which was destroyed by a hurricane in 1952; the death of her father when he was 66 years old; her mother being her guiding light in terms of religious practice; attending the Pierce School of Business in Philadelphia, PA; working for the Quakers and then for a synagogue; getting her real estate license at the University of Maryland; her two adopted children; retiring in December 1993 from real estate; volunteering at the USHMM in Visitors’ Services and in the Office of Survivor Relations; having very strong feelings about people having access to the Museum; and some of the artifacts that she’s donated to the Museum.

    Oral history interview with Jack Reuben

    Oral History

    Jack Ruben was born Yaakov Ruben on December 8, 1921 in Cincinnati, Ohio and after six months the family moved to LA. He was the only child to Joseph and Sarah Basha Ruben who came from Russia and were not religious. His mother was a garment worker and his father sold fruits and vegetables in a horse and cart in the local area. Due to an eye condition, Jack went to a health camp for a year. Jack's father left the family in 1927 and since lost track of him. Jack was placed in foster homes until the 11th grade and would visit his mother on the weekends. He graduated from high school and worked his way through UCLA by working part-time. In summer of '43 Jack volunteered for the Air Corps and was sent to Pomona College for nine months to study meteorology. He was not picked to be a meteorology officer so joined the infantry and was selected to be a coding clerk. He went to several camps and was shipped to Le Havre. His division had little information of the overall war and no details of concentration camps. From there he was part of the effort to form a bridge over the Moselle and next in a major assault at the Rhine River. Jack was in the Division furthest east in Germany which took many German prisoners as they quickly drove east. His company going east and meeting a surrendering German battalion who were permitted to march on their own. His company formed perimeters around villages and often stayed overnight in a civilian's home. They went through a rural area and saw dead prisoners and dead horses along the road without understanding the situation. They reached Ohrdruf Concentration Camp and saw a few emaciated prisoners leaving and many dead bodies piled up or laying on the ground. Jack did not realize it was a concentration camp at the time or that others existed until later when he returned to the US. The Army newspaper did not publish such information. From there, they went to the Czech border for 3 months which they guarded until VE Day. Then Jack was relocated to a relocation camp near Paris until Christmas '45 when he was shipped home and arrived in NY on New Year's Day '46. He was discharged and married a second time as his first wife was killed in an auto accident. Subsequently, he received a BA in economics, MA in family counseling and PhD in psychology and has practiced 10 years in the field. He has four children. Jack still does not understand how the crimes in the concentration camps could have been performed by fellow human beings.

    Oral history interview with David Bayer

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Tilda Finzi Cohen

    Oral History

    Tilda Finzi Cohen (née Mazel Tov “Tilda” Finzi) born in Split, Yugoslavia on July 11, 1933, discusses Germans passing through their city in early 1941; her father getting called into the army and returning after one month; the Italians occupying Split, closing businesses and setting a curfew; not being permitted to go to school and the formation of community Jewish schools in different locations around city; her uncle being imprisoned and bringing him food; the Italian capitulation in September 1943; her family joining other people fleeing to partisans in the mountains; going with her mother to Brac Island, to Vis Island; sailing to Bari two days before Yom Kippur; living in a camp then a private house; the Germans dropping gas bombs on ships on December 2, 1943; her family moving to a village near Bari and attending school; attending a Seder arranged by the Jewish Brigade in Bitonto, Italy in the spring of 1944; how after the war their relatives told them of the camps and atrocities and advised them not to return to Split; her family moving to Milan, Italy in 1948; her family immigrating to the United States in 1950; finishing high school and attending college; getting married; and feeling that she is not a part of any country and that she lost her childhood.

    Oral history interview with Zwi Golombek

    Oral History

    Zwi Golombek, born in Warsaw, Poland on September 15, 1934, describes his father’s large construction business; the formation of the Warsaw ghetto and his family moving into one room on Nowolipki Street; his father’s ability to exit and enter the ghetto because he possessed building permits; being aware of danger and seeing beatings; his father striking a German guard in early 1942 and being taken to a ghetto prison then Treblinka; his Uncle Mietek placing him with the Abramzuc family in Jozefow, Poland and his mother and sister disappearing from the ghetto two weeks later; staying hidden for three years and his uncle visiting often and playing the family to hide him; being called Henyek; his uncle placing him in a kibbutzim in Poland and Germany after the war; going to Israel on October 6, 1948; working in Tel Aviv and joining the Israeli army in 1952; fighting war in 1956, 1967, 1973, and 1982; getting married; and his two sons.

    Oral history interview with Samuel B. Hagner

    Oral History

    Samuel Hagner, born November 1, 1925 in Philadelphia, PA, discusses his Quaker parents; becoming a Quaker member at age 14; going to a Quaker work camp; being told about antisemitic events in Europe by a Jewish friend named Doris Weil and not believing her; his brother being a conscientious objector and working in a forestry camp during war; attending Oberlin College; being inducted into the army in January 1944 as a 1-A-O; training as a medical corpsman; sailing to Europe in December 1944; joining 7th Army in Germany and moving as the front moved; being made an armed guard at a billet even though he refused to carry a gun; going by truck to help liberate Dachau; the overwhelming experiences of seeing Dachau and feeling anger towards the SS guards; staying in the camp for one week; wavering about being a conscientious objector and writing to Doris to tell her she was right; going to a German hospital with nuns; going to France and the war ending before he was deployed to the Philippines; becoming a scrub nurse during plastic surgery on war victims in Indiana; being discharged and returning to college in the fall of 1946; practicing psychiatry for adults; living with his Dachau experience but not being at peace with it; and his continued abhorrence of war.

    Oral history interview with Werner E. Michel

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Helen Luksenburg

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with William Luksenburg

    Oral History

    William Luksenburg describes going on a death march from Regensburg, Germany to Lebenau, Germany; a German farmer picking him up from the road, where he fell; being brought by the farmer to American troops stationed in the nearby town of Laufen, where he was treated for malnutrition; his cousin coming to the same camp a few months later; returning with his cousin to Bayreuth, Germany, where there were other family members; reuniting in Prague with his future wife, Helen, whom he met in the Blechhammer work camp; getting married in 1947; receiving money and support from the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Agency; attending a technical school organized by the Organization for Rehabilitation through Training; immigrating to the United States in September 1949 with Helen; and becoming a mechanic and starting his own business. [Note: This interview focuses on the interviewee’s post-Holocaust experiences. There is an earlier interview focusing on the interviewee’s Holocaust experience. This interview can be accessed by requesting RG-50.030*140.]

    Oral history interview with Rose Weisfeld

    Oral History

    Rose Weisfeld (née Friedman), born on March 28, 1914 in Radom, Poland, discusses her early life and schooling; social integration between Jews and Christians at home and at school; keeping Jewish customs and traditions at home; her religious education; her brothers’ conscription in the Polish army; being badly injured and hospitalized for a year; her family’s forced relocation to the Radom ghetto; her father’s death; the liquidation of the ghetto; doing factory work; being transported to Auschwitz via cattle car; the process of selections; being transported to Ravensbrück in 1944; being liberated by Swedish soldiers and their compassion; weighing 32 pounds at liberation; her hospitalization in Denmark and Sweden; finding work in a factory and regaining her humanity; her marriage in Sweden to another survivor; the birth of her children; finding her brother through the Red Cross after four years; immigrating to the United States to be with her brother; the difficulties of adjusting to life in the US; and the importance of raising her children with Jewish traditions.

    Oral history interview with Ruth E. Greifer

    Oral History

    Ruth Greifer (née Dahl), born May 30, 1922 in Geilenkirchen (near Aachen), Germany, discusses her father, who was a cattle dealer, and her Dutch mother; attending a private Catholic school and experiencing antisemitism but being treated well by the nuns; how the plaque on father’s business was shattered in 1938; moving to Valkenburg, Holland in the spring of 1938; Germans occupying the city on May 10, 1940 and her family hiding in catacombs during the bombing; having to wear the yellow star and obey curfew; her father’s business being taken away; the Germans ordering them to leave in June 1942, but she was allowed to stay because she was sick; her brother and two aunts being taken to Auschwitz; how a Mr. Jansen from the underground arranged for she and her parents to go into hiding; going to a coal miner’s house, while her parents went to another; being thought of as a risk and being relocated to a doctor’s house to be a maid; going into hiding at the Robertson’s house near Treebeek and Hoensbroek with another Jewish woman; getting money from the underground organization; hearing about the June 1944 invasion; going to a house in Treebeek; the heavy bombing in the city and hiding in a potato bin for three days; being liberated September 17, 1944; returning to her parents in Valkenburg; the loss of all of her mother’s Dutch family; sailing to the United states in the spring of 1948; settling with her sister in Pittsburgh, PA; getting married April 8, 1951 and having three daughters; moving to Washington, DC in 1957; and her feelings about Germany.

    Oral history interview with Nesse Godin

    Oral History

    Nesse Godin (née Galperin), born on March 28, 1928 in Siaulai, Lithuania, discusses her life after the war; being liberated by the Russians in Chynowie (known as Chinow in German) near Wejherowo, Poland on March 10, 1945; suffering from typhoid and dysentery and weighing 65 pounds; joining her mother and brother in Feldafing DP camp; going to ORT and UNRRA sponsored classes; getting married to Jack Godin, who had escaped from the Vilna Ghetto and whose family was killed in Ponary; having her first child in Munich, Germany; immigrating to United States in 1950 and settling in Washington, DC; becoming a citizen in 1955 and working as a dressmaker for 26 years; raising her children; sharing her Holocaust experience; working with the UJA, Jewish Community Council and the Anti-Defamation League of B’nai B’rith, and the US Holocaust Memorial Council; working on projects at USHMM, including the “Remember the Children” exhibit, the ID project, and within the education and development departments; and her thoughts on the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Maryla Korn

    Oral History

    Maryla Korn (née Orgel), born on June 10, 1938 in Kraków, Poland, discusses going with her mother first to Wieliczka and then to Bochnia between late 1940 and early 1941; hiding with a peasant family but crying so much that she was returned to her mother; going to a ghetto in Bochnia at the end of 1941; her mother working outside the ghetto in a factory; taking messages outside the ghetto and bringing back food; leaving the ghetto in June 1943 and separating from her mother; carrying diamonds and money, but no luggage and bribing Germans and the Judenrat; traveling by truck to the border then by foot at night; being guided by paid partisans; her grandfather being shot at Bochnia cemetery, her grandmother being taken to Auschwitz, and her uncle being taken to Belzec in the summer of 1942; being by Czech collaborators in Kosice, Slovakia; being released and proceeding to Hungary with help from the Joint; being caught and sent to a prison in Budapest and the Joint getting her out; going to Usod, Hungary in the fall of 1943 and staying there until April 1944 under name of Orglowska; living as a Christian; being treated for gangrene in her leg; the roundup of Hungarian Jews in April 1944; her mother stealing passes and going to Budapest; staying with a Jewish Polish friend and then going to Bucharest, Romania with help from the Joint; almost boarding two different ships in Constanta, Romania going to Palestine, one of which (the Merkur) sank and the other ended up in Cyprus; being liberated by the Russians in the spring of 1945; going to Budapest and staying in a children’s home while her mother went back to Poland to check on family; her mother setting up a business in Vienna, Austria with an uncle; her father returning traumatized from the war; going to Brussels, Belgium in the winter of 1946-1947; going to Israel in 1951; living in both Israel and Brussels until immigrating to the United states in May 1961; getting married in June 1961 to David Korn, who is also a survivor; visiting her parents in Germany; and her work translating for USHMM.

    Oral history interview with Michel Margosis

    Oral History

    Michel Margosis, born in Brussels, Belgium on September 2, 1928, discusses immigrating to the United States in 1943; being taken in by father’s cousin in Brooklyn, then to foster home; his parents coming to the US in 1946; graduating from high school in 1947; graduating with honors from Brooklyn College in 1951; enlisting in the army and being sent to Germany as an interpreter but requesting to be transferred; becoming a medic near Verdun; feeling very American, but did not speak about his childhood with other soldiers; his feeling about Germany; working at USHMM with the Speakers Bureau and translating materials; speaking about his past; and being featured in the book “The Triumphant Spirit” by Nicholas del Calzo.

    Oral history interview with Lena Jurand

    Oral History

    Lena Jurand (Salzberg), born in Przemysl, Poland on September 13, 1917, discusses being an only child, educated in a Catholic school then at a music conservatory; meeting her husband Julian Jurand in 1931 and getting married in May 1940; living in the Russian part of town; her father being chosen for the Judenrat when the Germans took over; Jews having to give up jewelry and wear a star; the ghetto being formed in July 1942; moving with parents and in-laws from Lvov; working in a factory disinfecting uniforms; her father being taken away and how she went to the Gestapo headquarters and saved him from deportation to Auschwitz; meeting a Polish woman in the factory who offered to hide her and Julian; hiding for 22 months in room off of kitchen in a woman’s apartment; being liberated by Russians in August 1944; living in an apartment with her husband and cousins; living in Munich, Germany with UNRRA staff of the Neu Freimann DP Camp; teaching music to child survivors in camp for one year; moving to Genoa, Italy, where Julian practiced medicine; visiting her uncle for six months in New York, NY; going to the United States in 1951; living in New Jersey, where Julian worked in state hospital as a psychiatrist; and Julian becoming the clinical director at St. Elizabeth’s in Washington, D.C.

    Oral history interview with Wallace Witkowski

    Oral History

    Wallace A. Witkowski, born January 12, 1928 in Kielce, Poland, discusses his escape from Poland on a ship to Goteborg, Sweden in 1948; going to the United States; how his sister was caught by the communists and imprisoned; his struggle to find his father who had immigrated to the United States earlier; settling in Detroit, Michigan and adjusting to American life; how his mother and sister arrived in the U.S. later; attending high school and then Wayne State University; getting married in 1951; working as a radio disc jockey using the on-air name Jan Alexander; earning a law degree; working in Washington, DC and traveling between the United States and Poland; working for the Federal Trade Commission; living and working in Micronesia; his thoughts on religion and how the Holocaust affected him; his identity as a Catholic; his work as a translator; and his work with the Foreign Claims Settlement Commission.

    Oral history interview with Peter Masters

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Lena Gitter

    Oral History

    Lena Gitter (née Lieba Rosenblatt), born in 1905 in Vienna, Austria, discusses her life after the Holocaust; immigrating to the US in July 1938 with her husband and small daughter; her husband who worked as a physician; feeling guilty for many years about having escaped Vienna before the Holocaust; her long involvement with the Montessori schools both in Vienna and the United States; the Montessori method; working with people in Mississippi under Johnson’s War on Poverty program; the death of her husband in 1974; her plan to donate her collection of early childhood education materials to a library in Vienna; working under several Presidents of the United States.

    Oral history interview with Jacob Wiener

    Oral History

    Jacob Wiener (né Koppel G. Zwienicki), born March 25, 1917 in Bremen, Germany, discusses his experiences in the United States after World War II; the reaction to the war by the American media; his wife’s experience on the Kindertransport; his memories of watching Nazi war crime trials on television; his thoughts on Israel and Palestine; the Eichmann trial; how he was involved with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum from its founding; Holocaust education in American schools; antisemitism in the United States; and how he founded a school for mentally disabled children in the 1950s.

    Oral history interview with Noah Roitman

    Oral History

    Noah Roitman, born in Baranowicze, Poland (Baranavichy, Belarus) on January 10, 1923, discusses his religious upbringing and schooling; being very athletic; receiving warnings from his Christian friends in November 1938; his town being under Soviet rule in 1939; people being deported and his house being burned down; the German invasion on June 27, 1941; the formation of a ghetto on December 12, 1941; wearing the yellow star and working in arms factory; joining the resistance group of Mome Kopelovitz; the first action in the ghetto in March 1942; joining the partisans led by Pougatchov in the forest in August 1942; his activities sabotaging trains and bringing others out of ghetto (saving approximately 80 people); being sent to Pinsk, Belarus in late 1943; joining a group led by Major Igor, attacking trains; being ordered into Russian Army in Slutsk, Belarus in December 1943; fighting Germans and seeing Warsaw destroyed; being wounded by a sniper outside of Berlin, Germany; running a canteen for the Russian Army at the end of the war; returning to Poland; helping Jews get to Czechoslovakia; being captured and jailed, but escaping to Łódź, Poland; meeting his wife; traveling through Germany and France to get to Israel; being detained in Cyprus for 3 to 4 months; having a construction business in Israel; and immigrating to the United States in October 1963.

    Oral history interview with Richard W. Peterson

    Oral History

    Richard W. Peterson, born September 29, 1925 in Iowa, discusses his family’s Danish background; growing up in a Baptist family; first learning about the war in Europe and his family’s concern for Denmark; antisemitism in Iowa; hearing about the attack on Pearl Harbor; his involvement with ROTC and Boy Scouts; attending Drake University; joining the Army Specialized Training Reserve Program (ASTRP); reporting to Fort Crook for the reserve program and then to Camp Dodge in Iowa; being sworn into the U.S. Army; training at Camp Livingston in Louisiana with the 86th Blackhawk division; being assigned to A Company, 342nd Infantry; being sent to Le Havre, France; traveling through France, the Netherlands, and Germany; fighting in a battle in Attendorn, Germany; entering what appeared to be a factory in Attendorn and seeing starving people there; the reaction of his comrades to seeing the prisoners; the liberation of Auschwitz; being sent to the Philippines from September 1945 to March 1946; finishing his degree at the University of Iowa; graduating from law school in 1951; getting married; his father’s appointment to the Iowa Supreme Court; how he was a United States Magistrate Judge; his three children; and how he feels about American current events, politics, and world news.

    Oral history interview with Riane Gruss

    Oral History

    Riane Gruss (née Wohl), born on August 18, 1932 in Vienna, Austria, describes her father, who was a banker in Kraków, Poland and an industrialist in Vienna, and how her parents lived half a year in each place; she and her siblings being raised by a governess in Vienna; being in Kraków on September 1, 1939; going to Jaroslav, where there was bombing, then to Zloczow and to Kolomyja; her father and brother being captured at the border and her brother’s release; returning to Zloczow; being sent to Siberia by the Russians in July 1940; her younger brother getting scarlet fever; arriving in August 1940 near Yakutsk and Aldan and going to a labor camp; conditions in the camp; the hard physical labor for adults; how in April 1941 the NKVD said mothers and children could leave; their New York relatives getting them Bolivian passports; leaving in May and meeting her father in Lvov (L'viv, Ukraine); going to a farm in country for four months after the German invasion on June 22, 1941; her family following her uncle Joseph Stieglitz to Munkacs, Hungary (Mukacheve, Ukraine); getting Polish Christian papers; going to Budapest, Hungary; going to Szeged, Hungary, where her father had to be hospitalized; the children being hidden in the fall of 1944 in a caretaker’s house in Buda, Hungary; escaping when the Russians arrived and reuniting with her parents; going with her family to Mako, Hungary for four weeks then to Vienna; her parents returning to Kraków; going with a smuggler to Brno, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic) and then joining her parents in Kraków; going with her family to Stockholm, Sweden; going to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in October 1946; going to New York, in February 1951; and getting married in December 195 and having two children.

    Oral history interview with Regina Spiegel

    Oral History

    Regina Spiegel, (née Gutman) born May 12, 1926 in Radom, Poland, discusses her post-war experiences starting with her liberation; traveling with 3,000 other female prisoners by train from Elsnig, Germany to Dachau, Germany; how the train stopped on the way to Dachau because the railway line had been bombed; how the train itself was bombed by the Allies while stopped on the tracks; being able to escape during the bombing; traveling with 15 other women by horse and buggy to Poland; sleeping in German homes while traveling to Poland; avoiding large groups of Russian soldiers; promising her mother and her boyfriend that if they were separated during the war, they would meet in Radom, Poland; how she and her friends boarded a train in Poznań, Poland without any money; meeting a man on the train with whom she had been imprisoned in Pionki, Poland; returning to Radom where she was told that returning Jews were being killed; returning to the Radom Ghetto, where many displaced persons were gathering; writing her name on a list of displaced persons in the Radom Ghetto; traveling from Radom to Kozienice to reunite with her boyfriend, Sam; leaving Poland with Sam and traveling by train to Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); traveling with the Joint Distribution Committee from Prague to Pilsen, Czech Republic and then to Germany; staying with Sam in the displaced persons camp Föhrenwald; her marriage to Sam in 1946; moving to Stuttgart, Germany, where she learned to be a seamstress through ORT classes; her involvement with the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York; her religious beliefs and how they changed throughout the war; moving to Washington, DC; how she and Sam learned to speak English; working as a seamstress before giving birth to a daughter in August 1951; her thoughts on the Yugoslavian conflict; her work with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum during its early development; her activity with the Jewish Holocaust Survivors and Friends of Greater Washington; returning with Sam to Auschwitz in 1975; speaking publically about the Holocaust; receiving an award from the United Jewish Appeal; and how she and Sam take groups of 16 to 18 year olds to Poland and Israel through the B'nai B'rith Youth Organization.

    Oral history interview with Charles Stein

    Oral History

    Charles Stein (né Karl Robert Stein), born in Vienna, Austria, on November 28, 1919, describes his childhood; attending medical school at the University of Vienna; immigrating to the United States and arriving on December 18, 1939; his draft into the army on October 7, 1941; discovering that his parents had gone into the Łódź ghetto; training at Camp Ritchie in Maryland; going to Normandy, France with the 9th Infantry Division as the commander of a prisoner-of-war interrogation team; helping to liberate Nordhausen and interrogating its Ukrainian guards; becoming an Army captain and then the chief of the translation section in the Office of Military History at the Pentagon; serving in Korea and Tokyo for five years; marrying an Air Force lieutenant in Tokyo; returning to the US and settling in Washington, DC; working for the Air Force Intelligence and for the State Department until his retirement in 1978; serving as a foreign service officer and being responsible for the resettlement of refugees in Europe; and writing about his experiences during the war.

    Oral history interview with Hannah Kalman

    Oral History

    Hannah Kalman (née Hannah Finer Kalmanowicz), born in 1912 in Opoczno, Poland and describes her family; moving to Łódź, Poland when she was 12 and joining a Zionist organization; meeting her husband in the Zionist organization and getting married in 1937; moving into the Łódź ghetto in 1939; living with her son, sister, and nephew in a small room with bad conditions; being deported with her family on one of the last transports out of the Łódź ghetto; never seeing her son and nephew again after their arrival at Auschwitz; her transport to Waldeslust, Germany, where she did hard labor; going on a death march to Bergen-Belsen; conditions in the camp; being liberated with her sister on April 15, 1945; the death of her sister two months after liberation; traveling around Poland looking for relatives; reuniting with her husband later in Poland; moving to Germany and having a son; immigrating to the United States; settling in Scranton, Pennsylvania; having a daughter; and living in Israel for a short time but ultimately settling in the United States for medical treatment.

    Oral history interview with Morris Rosen

    Oral History

    Morris Rosen, born on November 10, 1922 in Częstochowa, Poland, describes his family; being forced to paint rooms for German troops during the war; his deportation to Theresienstadt; being forced on a death march to Buchenwald; receiving help from the Red Cross after the war; traveling around Poland and Germany trying to find his sister; his time spent in displaced persons camps; his memories of the Nuremberg Trials; immigrating to the United States and settling in New York; the mental stress with which he dealt after the war; attending the international law program at Columbia; moving to Baltimore, Maryland in November, 1949; getting married in 1953; collecting items from the World War Two era; and his reflections on the state of antisemitism in today’s world.

    Oral history interview with Sam Spiegel

    Oral History

    Sam Spiegel, born in Kozienice, Poland on August 23, 1922, describes his family and childhood; being forced into a ghetto; his father’s involvement in the underground movement; working for the Judenrat and getting papers to leave the ghetto and get extra food; his deportation to Auschwitz in 1942; meeting his future wife in the camp; the Ukrainian camp guards; conditions in the camp and how inmates helped each other; going on a death march as the Allies neared Auschwitz; returning home and experiencing antisemitism; spending time in displaced persons camps; working for the United Nations Relief Organization and the Joint Distribution Committee after the war; getting married; immigrating to the United States; and returning to Europe to visit the concentration camps.

    Oral history interview with Fred Gutter

    Oral History

    Fred Gutter, born on December 25, 1926 in Sanok, Poland, describes his family and childhood; his memories of celebrating the Jewish holidays and Sabbath services; attending a high school and experiencing antisemitism; increasing persecution against Jews in the 1930s; moving to Lwów because of the difficulties his family faced; his family’s capture by Russian troops and living under Russian control; being released by the Russians at the end of the war and briefly returning to Sanok; staying in several displaced persons camps; reuniting with his father after the war; receiving aid from the Joint Distribution Committee; spending some time in Palestine and fighting in the 1948 war; immigrating to the United States in 1959; and his feelings about American politics.

    Oral history interview with Henry Greenbaum

    Oral History

    Henry Greenbaum, born on April 1, 1928 in Starachowice, Poland, describes his family and childhood; his memories of his family celebrating the Jewish holidays; being too young to understand the persecution that was happening around him; his family deciding that one of his sisters should immigrate to the United States in 1937; the establishment of a ghetto in Starachowice; his deportation to a labor camp in October 1942; attempting to escape but getting severely wounded and having to stay in the camp; his transfers to Auschwitz and then Flossenbürg; going on a death march from Flossenbürg; his liberation by the U.S. Army on April 25, 1945; spending time in a displaced persons camp after the war until his sister in America could send papers for him and his brother; immigrating to the United States in June 1946; adjusting to life in America and finding a job at a department store; settling in the Washington metro area; and interacting with other Holocaust survivors who live in his community.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Alper

    Oral History

    Ruth Alper, born on February 18, 1932 in Germany, describes her family and childhood; experiencing little antisemitism as a child; her memories of Kristallnacht; receiving an affidavit from family in Detroit, MI in 1939 to immigrate to the United States; arriving in Cuba and staying there until 1941, when she and her family moved to Miami, FL; the small Jewish community in Havana, Cuba; listening to the progress of the war on the radio; experiencing antisemitism in Miami; her recollections of the response of the American Jewish community experiencing the war from abroad; and creating a new life for herself in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Michael Lin

    Oral History

    Michael Lin, born in Riga, Latvia on September 14, 1936, describes his family and childhood; the Jewish community of Riga; the beginning of the war in 1941 and his family being forced to leave their home to settle in Yaroslavl (IAroslavl' ), Russia; catching malaria and developing pneumonia in 1941 but not being able to get medication; moving to another small village in Russia, where he remained until 1944 when his family moved farther east; having to shave his head to avoid getting lice; his father’s draft into the Russian Army; the end of the war and preparing to return to Riga; his experiences with antisemitism in Russia; beginning school after the war in Latvia; his draft into the Russian Army in September 1955; attending school in Moscow after he left the army; immigrating to Israel in 1969 with his wife and children; immigrating to the United States a few years later; and his reflections on sharing his memories of the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Hannah Kalman

    Oral History

    Chana Kalman, born on January 20, 1912 in Opoczno, Poland, describes her family and childhood; her experiences with antisemitism; moving to Łódź, Poland when she was eighteen years old; participating in a Zionist organization with several other young people; working during the day and attending a Hebrew school at night; getting married shortly before the death of her father in 1937; giving birth to a child on January 25, 1939; moving into the Łódź ghetto in 1940 and struggling to find food for herself and her son; the liquidation of the ghetto in August 1944; her deportation to Auschwitz with her sister and being forced around by SS men; her transfer to Bergen-Belsen shortly before her liberation; finding out about the death of her husband and child; getting remarried in 1946 and having a son and a daughter; remaining in Germany as a displaced person until 1950, when she immigrated to the United States; settling in Scranton, Pennsylvania; spending some time in Israel once her children had grown up; and her reflections on life in the United States.

    Oral history interview with Dorrit L. Ostberg

    Oral History

    Dorrit Liane Ostberg, born in Vienna, Austria on September 29, 1929, describes her family; her father fleeing to Paris, France after the Germans entered Austria; escaping to Paris with her mother and sister but discovering that her father had fled to Yugoslavia; arriving in Yugoslavia several months later; obtaining Yugoslavian citizenship and living in Slavonski-Brod and Zagreb (both in present day Croatia); fleeing to Crikvenica, Croatia after Croatian guards arrested her father; her family’s deportation to an Italian internment camp on Rab; attending school until she contracted hepatitis and had to stay in a hospital for four months; her liberation in September 1943; her family fleeing on a fishing boat to Italy and living openly as Jews in Bari, Italy with two Italian women; immigrating to Fort Ontario in Oswego, New York in July 1944; attending junior high school; moving to New York City after the war ended; attending university and becoming a math teacher; getting married three times and having one son; and her religious feelings.

    Oral history interview with Alice Eberstarkova Masters

    Oral History

    Alice Eberstarkova Masters, born in Trstená, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia) in 1925, describes her youth; her experiences with antisemitism before the war; immigrating to England in 1939 on a Kindertransport; working as a secretary for the Czech government-in-exile in London during the war; following the BBC broadcasts of the war’s progress; the end of the war and discovering that her parents had died in Auschwitz; her reflections on the Nuremberg Trials; participating in Zionist and Jewish organizations while in England; immigrating to the United States in March 1948; working for the International Monetary Fund; losing her religious faith; getting married and starting a family after the war; and telling her children and grandchildren about her experiences during the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Martin Weiss

    Oral History

    Martin Weiss, born in Polana, Czechoslovakia (possibly present day Veľká Poľana, Slovakia) on January 28, 1929, describes his post-war experiences living in Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic with his sister; receiving papers to immigrate to the United States in 1946 and living with a distant cousin; working at a butcher’s shop, so he could support himself; opening his own meat store later in life; eventually deciding to volunteer at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum; and not participating much in his faith anymore.

    Oral history interview with Leonard Gordon

    Oral History

    Leonard Gordon, born on June 8, 1925 in Tilsit, Germany (Sovetsk, Russia), describes growing up in Siauliai, Lithuania; his family; attending Jewish grade school and high school; the German invasion of Lithuania in 1941; trying to escape to Russia but instead having to return home and go into the Siauliai ghetto; his family’s transport to Stutthof in 1944; being transported with his father and brother to Dachau, where they worked at Mühldorf; building the German underground airport, Messerschmitt; his father’s proposal that the three of them commit suicide; hearing about the invasion of Normandy; the liberation of Dachau in May 1945; staying in a displaced persons camp in Feldafing and planning to move to Israel; traveling to Italy and studying to be a radio technician; immigrating to the United States; becoming an electrical engineer and serving in the United States Navy; and rediscovering religion after the death of his wife.

    Oral history interview with Fritz Gluckstein

    Oral History

    Fritz Gluckstein, born January 24, 1927 in Berlin, Germany, describes the end of the war in Berlin; the food and housing shortages; cleaning up rubble from bombings with his father; the difficulties of re-starting his education after the war; immigrating to the United States in January 1948 and settling in the Minneapolis and St. Paul area; becoming a veterinarian; and volunteering for the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Brigitte Freidin

    Oral History

    Brigitte Freidin, born in Augsburg, Germany on June 3, 1930, describes her family and childhood; her memories of Kristallnacht; her father being arrested and sent to Dachau after Kristallnacht; her father’s release and her parents’ decision to try to immigrate to the United States; traveling to England while waiting for permission to go to the U.S.; immigrating to the U.S. in 1941; staying with relatives who were taking in refugees in Washington, DC; losing touch with much of her family left in Europe and then discovering that many had died; participating in American student clubs during the war; working as a salesgirl when she was fourteen years old to help support her family; getting married and starting a family; and speaking about her personal experiences during the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Eva Kristine Belfoure

    Oral History

    Eva Kristine Belfoure, born on October 1, 1924 in Kraków, Poland, describes growing up in a Roman Catholic home; having many Orthodox Jewish friends in her childhood; teaching Catholic prayers to an elderly Jewish lady who was hidden in her home during the war; exchanging goods and delivering messages in the ghetto; being arrested in January 1942 and being taken to the Nordhausen concentration camp, where she worked in various labor camps; her deportation to the Rathsfeld firm, where she worked as a kitchen aide and remained until liberation; doing translation work in a field hospital in Nordhausen after the war; going to the displaced persons camps in Dora, Heilbronn, and Darmstadt; attending the university in Frankfurt after receiving aid from the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Agency; immigrating to the United States in June 1950 and marrying a sailor in 1953; teaching languages in Baltimore County for twenty-five years; and translating for the Red Cross and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with George Hill Leonard

    Oral History

    George Leonard, a concentration camp liberator born on December 24, 1921 in Malden, Massachusetts, describes his childhood; his training in Alabama and California before he and his unit went to England; becoming the company runner, staying close to the captain and lieutenants; translating codes and delivering messages while at war; his memories of the fights at the Siegfried Line; receiving the Bronze Star after being wounded; traveling through parts of Germany along the Czech border and getting ordered to the Mauthausen concentration camp in Austria; helping to give the victims a proper burial; staying in the Mauthausen area for about six weeks until he went to Spital am Pyhrn, Austria in late July; leaving for America on December 15, 1945; getting married; and teaching at Harvard University after the war.

    Oral history interview with Kurt Roberg

    Oral History

    Kurt Roberg, born May 16, 1924 in Celle, Germany, discusses his childhood; attending a German school where he was the only Jewish student; his father Victor Roberg’s profession as a merchant for the firm Gebrüder Freidberg; his family’s religious practices; Kristallnacht; antisemitism in his hometown; details of German politics of the time; the boycott of Jewish businesses on April 1, 1933; how a retired teacher, Hal Lotheim, taught local Jewish students; the Hitler Youth in his community; his Bar Mitzvah; how his brother, Harry, immigrated in 1936 to Holland, the Netherlands to live with their maternal uncle, Wilhelm Marx; how his father had to close his business in 1937; his mother’s 1938 trip to Hamburg, Germany to visit the American consulate; how his father was sent to Oranienburg after Kristallnacht; his father’s release and experiences in Oranienburg; his journey to Holland to join his brother and uncle; how his mother and father used American visa applications to travel to Holland; how his mother, father, and brother immigrated to the United States from Holland in 1940; German attacks on Rotterdam, the Netherlands; being interned in Holland for his status as a German citizen; being sent out of Rotterdam to Gouda, the Netherlands; how a woman organized transports of children from Holland and Belgium to reunite with their parents; receiving his American visa in January 1941; leaving Holland in March 1941; traveling from Germany to Spain and then to Lisbon, Portugal by train with other children; traveling by American ship from Lisbon, Portugal to the United States; being held on Ellis Island for a month because of visa complications; living in New Rochelle, New York with his family; learning about Pearl Harbor; how he and his brother joined the army in 1943; experiencing antisemitism in the army; his experience in the Pacific during World War II; and his life with his family after the war.

    Oral history interview with Alfred Schnog

    Oral History

    Alfred Schnog, born January 25, 1931, discusses his childhood in Cologne, Germany; growing up in a relatively secular Jewish family on Universität Straße; his relationship with his grandparents who lived in Deutz, a suburb of Cologne; seeing Nazi parades and looking on with interest but feeling unwelcome; being harassed by Nazi Youth on his way home from school with his twin brother, Norbert; seeing signs in businesses barring Jews and learning that few business owners enforced this policy; spending Passover in a Catholic hospital after being injured in a car wreck and being provided with kosher food by the nuns; watching his father throw pieces of a gun into the Rhine when guns were banned for Jews; his father’s metal trade business being taken over by non-Jews; hearing about concentration camps but believing they would primarily affect immigrants (particularly Poles) and seeing Polish children taken out of his classes by the Gestapo; his parents’ search for a way out of Germany and eventual escape to the Netherlands in the summer of 1938; his family’s return to Germany in November 1938 to retrieve belongings; witnessing Kristallnacht from an upper-floor window of the Dome Hotel; his family being taken to jail as they tried to return to the Netherlands after the German borders were sealed, but eventually being allowed to go; attending Jewish school in Amsterdam and learning Dutch; applying to move to the United States and first going by plane to England in Jan 1940, then by ship (the Britannic) from Liverpool to New York City in April 1940; attending school in the United States; speaking Dutch with his brother because they did not want to be associated with Germans; experiencing discrimination in school when his third grade teacher admonished him and his brother for wearing an American flag pin on a holiday when they were not born in America; having his Bar Mitzvah and attending Hebrew school at the synagogue in Regal Park; experiencing antisemitism as his family vacationed in the Adirondacks, finding many signs restricting Jews from staying at hotels; learning that his grandparents had been killed in a concentration camp; graduating from Forest Hill High School and then receiving a degree in engineering from Cornell; going to Korea in 1954 to serve two years in the U.S. Army; starting and running a company; learning that a pair of his father’s cufflinks were given to his father in recognition of his Bar Mitzvah by Claus von Stauffenberg, a German officer who later led an assassination attempt against Hitler; his reflections on the way those who did not experience the Holocaust and WWII view it; his children’s knowledge of his and his parents’ experiences and how it has affected them; and his thoughts on Israel.

    Oral history interview with Fred Taucher

    Oral History

    Fred Taucher, born on January 29, 1933 in Berlin, Germany, describes his half-brother’s suicide to avoid Nazi concentration camps; the destruction of his father’s store during Kristallnacht; moving to a ghetto in 1938; his father’s inability to leave Germany despite his United State’s citizenship; his family’s relationship with a high ranking Nazi member; his father going into slave labor and then being sent to Auschwitz in 1943; his family’s escape from arrest; living in subway stations to avoid Allied bombings; getting arrested, tortured, and sent to Dachau in April 1945; escaping from the Nazis with some Russian soldiers; his mother’s death during a crossfire between the Germans and the Russians; his 1946 Bar Mitzvah in Berlin; life in Berlin after the Holocaust; his 1946 arrival in America; his decision to join the U.S. Army; his experiences trying to obtain United States citizenship; his life in America as a citizen and his activism in Holocaust survivor networks.

    Oral history interview with Helen Goldkind

    Oral History

    Helen Goldkind, born in Czechoslovakia (near Volosyanka, Ukraine) on July 9, 1928, describes her early childhood; experiencing antisemitism as a child; her recollections of the Nazi occupation of her town in 1944; her deportation to Auschwitz; how her grandfather was beaten to death for not relinquishing a Torah scroll; being sent to work at a munitions factory in Germany; being with her sister when they were liberated by British troops in 1945; spending time in the Bergen-Belsen displaced persons camp to recover; receiving help from the Swedish Red Cross and traveling to Sweden to recover; immigrating to the United States in 1946 with her sister; finding a job as a secretary in New York City; getting married and moving to Baltimore; the death of her sister and raising her children; and her reflections on the current state of the world.

    Oral history interview with Inge Katzenstein

    Oral History

    Inge Katzenstein (née Berg), born March 27, 1929 in Cologne, Germany, describes her family; having to move in with some of her extended family in Cologne after Kristallnacht; attempting to illegally cross into Holland; getting into Holland but immediately being captured and imprisoned; immigrating to Kenya but not being able to leave their home their without permission; attending stenography school to become a secretary; immigrating to the United States in 1951 and settling in Vineland, New Jersey; getting married and raising her children as Orthodox Jews; and returning to Germany twice and getting treated well.

    Oral history interview with Werner Katzenstein

    Oral History

    Werner Katzenstein, born in Wallensen, Germany on April 29, 1922, describes his childhood; having to leave school in 1933 after Hitler came to power in 1933; his father going to prison because he was Jewish but getting released after about a week; his father being forced to close down his business; buying property in Holland and immigrating there in 1937; immigrating to the United States in 1939 and settling in Somerville, New Jersey; being considered an enemy alien; registering for the draft and being called to service in March 1944; being sent for basic training to Camp Blanding in Florida; being classified for intelligence and reconnaissance work; joining the 100th Infantry Division in Fort Bragg, North Carolina; his deployment to Europe; going through southern France and the Vosges Mountains; and getting wounded in combat; returning to his platoon in January 1945 and going through Germany; being in combat in Heidelberg; working for the military government; visiting family who had been in Theresienstadt; returning for New Jersey on April 30,1946; and getting married and settling in Washington, D.C.

    Oral history interview with Fred Goldman

    Oral History

    Fred Goldman, born in Fürth, Germany on September 6, 1915, describes his childhood; his memories of Hitler coming to power; finishing high school and moving to Berlin to train to be a cantor and teacher at a Jewish Teacher’s College; returning to Fürth after three years and moving back in with his mother and sister; immigrating to the United States in January 1939 because a distant cousin vouched for him; arriving in the U.S. with twelve dollars and taking a job as a busboy at a department store in New York; marrying Ruth Schuster, a Jewish women also from Fürth; working in a uniform factory until he was drafted into the army in March 1943; becoming a member of the medical corps but then being transferred into the military intelligence unit when the army learned he was fluent in German; going to Camp Ritchie in Maryland; interrogating prisoners in Europe; staying with the army until March 1946, when he returned to the United States and became a diamond setter; and settling in Silver Spring, Maryland after the war.

    Oral history interview with Paulette Stessin

    Oral History

    Paulette Stessin, born in Metz, France, discusses her family and childhood in France; her parents, who sold clothing in the market; keeping kosher; her understanding of events in Germany in 1938 when she was 17 or 18; her family’s move to Angouleme, France where they thought they would be safe; daily life in Angouleme; her work as a hairdresser in Brive la Gaillarde, France, where there was one Jewish family; being arrested near Brive in April 1944; being transferred to Drancy and then to Auschwitz-Birkenau; her memories of Auschwitz; working on a road hauling stones; “Pitchipoi,” a term referring to the imaginary place they would be sent to and used by the prisoners in Drancy; the addition of a chemical to the women’s soup to suppress their menstrual cycles, which did not work on her; deciding to join her “camp sister”, a Dutch woman in another barrack, who was being deported; arriving at Bergen-Belsen; her memories of the camp; being liberated in April 1945; traveling to Paris; her reintegration at the Hotel Lutetia; and her decision to return to Angouleme.

    Oral history interview with Margitta Cooper

    Oral History

    Margitta Cooper, born on June 10, 1929 in Speyer, Germany, describes her family and childhood; her relationships with her non-Jewish friends; her memories of Kristallnacht; her father being arrested and sent to Dachau after Kristallnacht; her family’s arrest in 1940 and being taken to the Gurs concentration camp; gathering with about 20 other children and being told they were to be sent to the United States; separating from her parents and seeing them for the last time; spending time in a small French town before her immigration; finally travelling to the United States by boat in 1941; taking a train to Baltimore, MD to recover with the other immigrant children; meeting an uncle in New York City; finding out about the fate of her family; settling into life in Baltimore and receiving a job at the Johns Hopkins hospital; and her reflections on what the world knew about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Erika Eckstut

    Oral History

    Erica Eckstut, born June 12, 1928 in Znojmo, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), describes her family; staying with her sister and brother-in-law at the end of the war; marrying a member of the Czech Army, Robert Kauder, on August 28, 1945; living in Freiwaldau (Jeseník), Czech Republic; how her husband was the big boss (Velitel) in the city, removing Germans from the Sudetenland area; moving to Prague, Czech Republic; having two children over the next few years; how her husband testified at the Nuremberg Trials; the death of her husband in 1957; immigrating to the United States; finally arriving in the United States with her children on April 11, 1960 and being greeted by a swarm of reporters because she was among the first to be allowed to leave Communist Czechoslovakia; attending technology school; living with her sister, her sister’s husband, and their children for a year before getting her own apartment; meeting her current husband in 1962; her diagnosis of lung cancer in 1989; participating in a cancer research study and being one of two survivors of the seventy-five person study; and volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Tole Johannes Madna

    Oral History

    Tolé Johannes Hendricus Madna, born June 8, 1931 in The Hague, the Netherlands, describes his Indonesian father and his Dutch Protestant mother; living in Holland during the war; the divorce of his parents in 1936; living with his father and a nanny; hiding the infant son, Alfred Munzer, of family friends; the child staying with his family for three and a half years and calling him Bobby; moving to Belgium after the war; and immigrating to the United States.

    Oral history interview with Henri Dupuy

    Oral History

    Henri Dupuy, born June 5, 1920 in Thiviers, France and designated Righteous Among Nations, discusses his anger at the French government and Germany; his decision to join the Resistance; Constantin, nom de guerre Jambard, leader of the Armée Secrète (AS) who formed the Maquis in 1942 in Perigueux, France; how his mother, Helene, hid Maquis members in her home and procured ration cards; joining the police to avoid the draft; guarding the Perigueux Gestapo headquarters and stealing letters stamped “Dordogne,” denouncing French citizens; the November 10, 1943 Maquis attack in Perigueux and roundup and deportation of 350 Jews to Auschwitz; the arrest of the Gruska family and escape of their children; how his mother placed two Gruska sons with rural families and the daughter in a convent; how his mother secured forged identity papers with the complicity of Secretary-General Lafont, joining the Messignac Maquis; Maquis attacks from the woods; the supply of small arms by the Riberac police and by parachute drops; how the Maquis were denounced and attacked by Germans; hiding in Coursac, Dordogne, France and joining the Roland Maquis; a Maquis attack on the Neuvic-Bordeaux train carrying French francs to Germany in July or August 1944; and how the Maquis offloaded the francs in a truck to Saint-Alvere, a resistance center in the Dordogne, to support Maquis families and resistance activities.

    Oral history interview with Halina Peabody

    Oral History

    Halina Peabody (née Halina Janna Litman), born in Kraków, Poland on December 12, 1932, describes her childhood; taking on a false identity (Halina Litinska) during the war and pretending to be Catholic; hiding in Jaroslaw with her mother and younger sister; being injured on the day of liberation by a hand grenade; being liberated by the Russian Army; living in group homes with her sister after the war; traveling to Italy with her family and staying at a displaced persons camp; traveling to England and then going to Israel in 1957; taking a job at the American embassy in Tel Aviv; marrying a Bulgarian Jew who worked for the U.S. Information Agency; leaving Israel in 1968 with her husband and five year old son; immigrating to Palo Alto, California, where her husband could get a job at the Hoover Institute; moving to Washington, D.C., where Halina’s husband got a job working for “The Voice of America”; getting a divorce from her husband in 1972 and then marrying Richard Peabody; volunteering at the Holocaust Museum; and getting involved with survivor groups such as the Association of Child Survivors.

    Oral history interview with Marcel Bercau

    Oral History

    Marcel Bercau, born October 17, 1920 in Paris, France, describes his Romanian family; restrictions placed on Jews during German occupation; his deportation to Drancy in 1941; working in a locksmith's workshop and remaining in Drancy with his father and brother for a year before they were deported; going to Auschwitz, where he worked as an earth-worker and then as a bricklayer; working in the schlosser-electriker division, which allowed him to find a little bit of extra food; the evacuation of Auschwitz on January 17, 1945; going on a death march with 60,000 other prisoners and traveling through the snow and the cold with no food; arriving in Gleiwitz, Germany (Gliwice, Poland), where they were put in open cattle cars and transported to Oranienburg; how while they passed through Prague, Czech Republic people threw them bread and water containers; how four out of five people died during the transport; the German abandonment of Landsberg, where he was being held; being rescued and taken to Augsburg, where there was a repatriation camp; and returning to Paris to start a family.

    Oral history interview with Rolph Hammel

    Oral History

    Rolph Hammel, born on September 11, 1912, in Karlsruhe, Germany, describes his family; his involvement with a Zionist youth movement; being forced to do military service in 1933 in Dijon; getting scarlet fever; moving to Strasbourg, France and working in a hardware store before starting his own faucet and fixtures business in 1937; being allowed to remain in France because he had inherited citizenship from his mother who was French; working in the DCA during the war; helping to save 70 Jews in Périgueux, France; going to the ORT school; and his reflections on the treatment of Jews during the war.

    Oral history interview with Norbert V. Hilsberg

    Oral History

    Norbert Hilsberg, born on September 3, 1914 in Vienna, Austria, describes his family; graduating college and serving in the Austrian military for three months; starting the forms to immigrate to the United States after the Anschluss; his parents’ immigration to Cuba, where they stayed until April 1941, when they attained visas for the United States; receiving his visa in June 1938 and traveling to the United States; living with his uncle in Philadelphia, PA when he arrived; learning about the invasion of Poland; working in the advertising department of the Litz department store in Philadelphia; volunteering for the US Army in February 1941; getting sent to an engineering camp, where he made maps; the attachment of his outfit to the general headquarters in DC; being forced to remain in the US when his unit went abroad because he was not yet eligible for his American citizenship; receiving his citizenship in April 1943 and working on plans for the invasion of southern France and Austria; living in North Africa for nearly a year; being sent to Hawaii; leaving the army in 1945; accepting a job with the war department; and settling in Washington, DC with his family.

    Oral history interview with Alfred Munzer

    Oral History

    Alfred Munzer, born in The Hague, Netherlands on November 23, 1941, describes his family; how his parents debated over having him circumcised; his family going into hiding in May 1942; his father being admitted into a psychiatric hospital and his mother working at the psychiatric hospital as a nurse’s aide; his two older sisters being taken in by a Catholic family; going into hiding with a family friend and neighbor, Tolé Madna; how he played in the backyard and was called Bobby; his parents being sent to a concentration camp on December 26, 1942; his mother surviving the war, working first as a seamstress and later as an electrician; how his father died soon after liberation; the death of his sisters in Auschwitz; immigrating to Brussels, Belgium in 1952 and to the United States in 1958 with his mother; settling in New York where he attended Brooklyn College; going on to attend medical school at the State University of New York, Downstate Medical Center in Brooklyn; becoming a lung specialist and interning at several well known-hospitals before doing military service at Andrews Air Force base in Washington, D.C.; and settling in D.C. with his partner Joel Wind.

    Oral history interview with Maria Mandel

    Oral History

    Maria Myriam Mandel, born 1938 in Czerwinsk, Poland, discusses the assembly of the town's citizens in a square and their deportation; her family's escape through a bakery door; hiding from the Gestapo in granaries, cemeteries, and the woods; her parents’ execution by the Gestapo in 1942; her placement by her parents in a neighbor's home from 1942 to 1947; her new name, Katia Gortak; the kindness of her foster mother and brother; her Catholic education; her antisemitic feelings; the painful loss of her brother and sister who were placed in other families and abandoned; the arrival of the Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) at the end of the war; reuniting with her uncles in America and France; her shock at learning she was Jewish; her transfer to a Jewish orphanage in Czerwinsk, where she received a Jewish education; her recollections of antisemitism at the war's end; her life in the orphanage from 1947 to 1949; visits by her foster mother; her bitterness when visits ceased; how the JDC changed her birth date from 1938 to 1937 to allow her to travel alone from Poland to France; her arrival in Paris, France; her refusal to join her uncle in America; and her life in Perigueux, France with her paternal uncle and his family.

    Oral history interview with Yvonne Mignot de Royere

    Oral History

    Yvonne Mignot de Royere (née Roux), born in Clermont d’Excideuil, France on February, 22, 1925, describes how she and her father, Joseph Roux, saved 21 Jews during World War II; the evacuation of Jews in Strasbourg in 1939; working with her father, who was the mayor; taking in French Jewish refugees; how her work as a municipal clerk gave her access to forms and papers, which she used to provide the Jews with forged identity papers and ration cards; hiding Jews in the village rectory; one of the Jewish women giving birth to her daughter, Arlette Veil, in 1943; she and her father saving several families (last names: Robertso, Schwab, Wertz, and Veil); how three of the families were hidden in the caretaker’s house at the Chateau du Noyer and she helped them secure food; how she occasionally left the mayor’s office unlocked so that the families could secure additional ration cards; living in Excideuil from 1942 to 1944, after which the Jews returned to Alsace to rebuild their lives; staying in touch with the people she helped; and being honored with her father by Yad Vashem as Righteous Among Nations in 1982.

    Oral history interview with Susan Berlin

    Oral History

    Susan Berlin (née Suzanna Reichman), born on June 22, 1926 in Rožňava, Czechoslovakia (present day Slovakia), describes her family; her childhood in Rožňava; her memories of the rise of Nazi power; immigrating to the United States on August 3, 1939; settling in New York City, where she went to Julia Richmond High School; graduating in 1942 and attending Brooklyn College for her undergraduate degree and the University of Pennsylvania for her master’s degree; graduating in 1947 and moving to Washington D.C., where she got a job in the Army Intelligence Map Service as an Army Intelligence Research Analyst; marrying in 1950 and having three daughters; retiring from the Army Intelligence Map Service to raise her daughters; becoming an art teacher when her children got older; and volunteering at the Holocaust Memorial Museum in the Education Department.

    Oral history interview with John Bucur

    Oral History

    John Bucur, born in Youngstown, Ohio on March 5, 1925, describes his childhood; his Romanian-American parents; the multiracial community he grew up in; graduating high school in 1943 as the valedictorian of his class and receiving a scholarship to Ohio University; enlisting in the Army and being sent to Fort Sill, where he received training to be in Battery B of the 17th Observation Battalion; his first assignment watching a ship off the shore of Omaha Beach in France on D-Day; his unit’s move through England, France, and Germany and then going on a tour of Buchenwald at the end of the war; taking college courses at an American School in Biarritz, France after the war; returning home on December 7, 1945 and being discharged from the army; finishing his degree at Ohio University and graduating in 1948; going on to medical school and becoming a neurosurgeon; having five children with two wives; and moving to Arlington, Virginia to found Fairfax Hospital, Northern Virginia Doctor’s Hospital, and the National Orthopedic Hospital.

    Oral history interview with Lore Schneider

    Oral History

    Lore Schneider (née Heti Lore Koppel), born on October 10, 1924 in Bochum, Germany, describes her family; seeing the Nazi youth in her neighborhood; observing the Nazi parades from her home on the main street; immigrating to the United States in June 1934; settling in Washington, D.C. and attending public school; obtaining U.S. citizenship in 1939, five years after her family’s arrival; attending college at night and working as a stenographer at the Interior Department during the war; and marrying in 1946 and having three children.

    Oral history interview with Frank Liebermann

    Oral History

    Frank Nathan Liebermann (né Franz Natan Liebermann), born in Gleiwitz (Gliwice), Poland on January 19, 1929, describes his family; celebrating Jewish holidays; immigrating to the United States in October 1938 and moving to Dayton, Ohio, where his father set up his medical practice; his family’s involvement in the Jewish community and helping many European Jews to immigrate to the United States; attending Western Reserve University; meeting his wife during his sophomore year and marrying her soon after he graduated; working for a textile converting firm for many years before retiring and moving to Washington, D.C., where his two daughters had already settled; finding a job at a travel firm; and beginning to volunteer at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum after September 11th, 2001.

    Oral history interview with Marianne Liebermann

    Oral History

    Marianne Liebermann, born in Vienna, Austria on October 29, 1929, describes her family and childhood; her education; her father searching for ways to leave Vienna and immigrating to the United States after the Anschluss; her father’s efforts to convince a gentile American family, with whom he had previously done business, to vouch for his family; boarding a train to Cherbourg, France in September 1938 and transferring to the Europa ship, which took them to the U.S.; arriving in New York on October 3, 1938 and living there when the war broke out in 1939; graduating from Barnard University and later going on to get her master’s degree at Adelphi University; marrying Frank Liebermann on November 23, 1950; settling down in Great Neck, New York and having three children; becoming a teacher and spending many years teaching English as a second language; and settling in Maryland.

    Oral history interview with Thea S. Rips

    Oral History

    Thea S. Rips, born in Trieste, Italy on February 24, 1922, describes her childhood; her family moving to Rijeka, Croatia when she was five years old; growing up in a Catholic family but having many Jewish friends; witnessing the persecution of nearby Jewish families; aiding several families in their attempts to escape Italy; wanting to become a doctor and working in a shipyard infirmary in Rijeka; getting a job working on the Marshall Plan after the war in Rome, Italy; being offered a chance to move to the United States and work as an interpreter in 1955; meeting her husband, who she was engaged to for eighteen years before they married in February 1976; going to the United States and living in New York; moving to Washington, D.C.; and the death of her husband in September of 1994.

    Oral history interview with Andrew Glass

    Oral History

    Andrew (né Andrej) James Glass, born November 30, 1935 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses his early childhood; spending time in his wealthy grandfather's house because of his mother's illness; his grandfather, Jacob, repatriating millions of dollars which had been deposited in Switzerland, New York, and London, back into zlotys in Poland because of a 1939 government decree; hearing planes and bombs exploding in September 1939; his father being forced to clear rubble and fill sandbags; supplying gas to a gentile taxi driver and two families driving east on September 13; going by horse and cart and then by train and on foot to Vilnius, Lithuania; his father getting picked up by a Lithuanian patrol but being released when he agreed with them that President Roosevelt was Jewish; his family receiving three Japanese visas from Chiune Sugihara, the Japanese Consul; paying 600 dollars to get Soviet transit visas; traveling on the Trans-Siberian Railway and arriving in Japan in December 1940; getting three residence visas to the Dominican Republic and a one week transit visa from the American Consul in Tokyo, Japan; sailing on the Kama Kumakara in April 1941 to San Francisco, CA; taking the train to New York, NY and staying there until 1943; immigrating to Canada; re-entering the U.S. under the Polish quota; his father working in a defense plant and his mother working as a seamstress in New York; how he determined to not feel different; working for the New York Herald Tribune, the Washington Post, Senators Javits and Percy, and Cox newspapers from 1974 to 2001; becoming a Fellow at Harvard and the managing editor of The Hill newspaper; and feeling that he is living on borrowed time, that life is precious, and that there is a randomness to who survives.

    Oral history interview with Renate Fischer Chernoff

    Oral History

    Renate Fischer Chernoff, born on June 25, 1929 in Breslau, Germany (Wrocław, Poland), describes her early childhood; moving to Racibórz, Poland with her family in 1934; being sent to Berlin, Germany to stay with her grandmother in 1937; her family choosing to immigrate to Canada since her father was a physician; arriving in 1938 and settling in Montreal; moving to New Brunswick; her parents adopting Saul Silvershein, a sixteen year old Polish boy from a displaced persons camp; attending college at Dalhousie University; meeting her husband while in graduate school at the University of Chicago; marrying in New Brunswick in 1953 and moving to Saint Louis, MO where her husband finished his residency and their first child was born; moving to Durham, NC, where they had two more children; and settling in the Washington, DC area in 1980.

    Oral history interview with Eli Dortort

    Oral History

    Eli Dortort (né Klemfner), born on August 30, 1920 in Zdachov, Galicia, Poland, describes his family and childhood; escaping his hometown a few hours before the Germans invaded; traveling with some Russian soldiers to Kiev, Ukraine and then to Starobielsk (Starobil's'k), Ukraine, where he volunteered for the Polish Army; his unit being sent to Israel, where he deserted and worked in a kibbutz; staying in the kibbutz for a year before he joined the British Army and was sent to Italy; later being stationed in Teheran, Iran and Egypt; returning to Israel after the war and fighting in the War of Independence; staying in Israel until the late 1950s, when he immigrated to the United States; and settling in New York City, where he met his wife and had a daughter.

    Oral history interview with Hilda Seftor

    Oral History

    Hilda Seftor (née Cohen), born in Edinburgh, Scotland on August 21, 1923, describes her family and childhood; finding out about the Nazi invasion of Poland; helping her local Jewish community and finding homes for thirty-five Jewish refugee children; her parents founding the Whittingehame Farm School; teaching the school’s Jewish children how to farm and giving them a traditional education; attending the Edinburgh College of Domestic Science and graduating with a degree in household and institutional management in 1943; working in the Edinburgh school system and later at a wartime nursery preparing meals for children; marrying after the war and immigrating to the United States; having four sons; moving to Washington, DC in 1994; and volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Felix Nicinski

    Oral History

    Felix Nicinski (né Fievish Nicinski), born December 7, 1925 in Lochów, Poland near Lódź, Poland, discusses his early childhood; moving in to the fenced-in ghetto in early 1940; how the Germans bombed their city before entering it; being taken to a work camp in Lienzingen (Mühlacker, Germany) in late 1940 with the other 14 to 18 year old boys to dig ditches; slipping away on a march in the summer of 1941 to work and escape to the fenced-in ghetto in Kalisz, Poland; receiving the false identity of an escaped 27 year old; Kalisz Jews being sent to the Lódź ghetto in 1941; being forced to wear the yellow star and beaten by the German guards; working at an ammunitions plants in Skarżysko-Kamienna for 10 months in 1942; being sent to Dora in 1943 and then to Buchenwald in 1944 for six months; his transfer to Bergen-Belsen in 1944; being liberated by the British on April 15, 1945; living in Bamberg, Germany between 1945 to 1948 and learning how to be a barber; immigrating to Australia in 1948 and living there for ten years; immigrating to the United States in 1958; and marrying another survivor of Bergen-Belsen.

    Oral history interview with David Brombart

    Oral History

    David Brombart, born on August 3, 1933 in Brussels, Belgium, discusses his childhood; the German invasion in May 1940 and being able to attend school until mid-1941; the deportation of his sister, Sarah, and his mother in August 1942; running away from a boarding school in Ikla (possibly Uccle in Brussels) and his father placing him in the home of business clients; going into hiding in Hornu, Belgium but visiting his father, who was in hiding in another city; his liberation in September 1944 and returning to Brussels with his father; finding out that his grandfather was a member of the Jewish Committee which made up lists for the Germans; returning to school at age 11 and learning how to write; serving in the Belgian Army from 1952 to 1954 and becoming the head of the Socialist Democratic Youth until 1958; having a full time job with the Young Socialist Guard and attending international conferences as the Labor Secretary from 1958 to 1964; living in Paris, France from 1958 to 1959; getting married in 1961; being offered a job to direct the African Labor Institute of the American organization AFL-CIO; moving to New York and advising labor movements in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia; becoming Deputy Director of the International Department of the AFL-CIO under Lane Kirkland; and being honored for his international labor work by the governments of Dahomey, Togo, and Senegal.

    Oral history interview with Gunter Haimann

    Oral History

    Gunter Haimann, born on January 26, 1922 in Koblenz, Germany, describes his childhood and family; his parents deciding that it was time to leave Germany in the beginning of 1937, when Jewish children were banned from public schools; immigrating to the United States and living with his aunt in Queens, New York; attending high school and night school to learn English; graduating in June 1941 and finding a job at an auto shop; his draft into the army at the beginning of the war and being trained as an interrogator; teaching interrogating techniques at Camp Ritchie in Maryland; his transfer into the 101st Airborne; going to England and jumping on D-Day and landing in Carentan, France; serving with the 101st for the remainder of the war; receiving a Purple Heart after being wounded in Bastogne, Belgium; not taking religion in to account while he was fighting; jumping onto Holland on Rosh Hashonah in 1944; going into Düsseldorf, Germany; finding Hitler’s stationary and using it to write letters; going to Austria and finding Mr. and Mrs. Goering and speaking with Mrs. Goering; seeing Holocaust survivors walking home; returning to the United States and starting a luncheonette business; and meeting his wife and having three children.

    Oral history interview with Alfred Lakritz

    Oral History

    Alfred Julian Lakritz, born on June 1, 1934 in Kiel, Germany, describes his family; narrowly escaping deportation to Poland in 1939 and moving to Antwerp, Belgium and then Marmande, France with his family; experiencing antisemitism from his peers in Marmande; how his father was arrested; speaking with the men who arrested his father many years later, and their regret; being sent with his brother to a Jewish summer camp in Creuse, France in July 1942; going into hiding in various safe houses for two and a half years after leaving the camp; ending up at a convent in Lourdes, France, where they met a Jewish French woman who took them in for the remainder of the war; being placed in a Catholic home in Tarbes with his brother after the war; reuniting with their mother in Marmande and applying for visas to the United States; immigrating to the United States in 1950 and settling in Oakland, CA; attending the University of California at Berkeley; completing his law degree; moving to Los Angeles, CA with his wife, whom he had met in law school; and raising a family.

    Oral history interview with Rita Rubinstein

    Oral History

    Rita Rubinstein (née Frieda Rifka Lifschitz), born on December 12, 1936 in Romania, describes her family and early childhood; her father’s draft into the Russian Army; going into hiding in Transnistria, Ukraine in September 1941; her liberation by Russian troops in April 1944; returning to their home in Romania and discovering that her father had died during the war; attending school for the first time and learning Russian and Ukrainian; traveling to Munich, Germany and posing as a Greek refugee; living in the Feldafing displaced persons camp for some time; developing tuberculosis in 1947 and having to go to a sanitarium in Augsburg, Germany; immigrating to the United States with her mother in September 1949 and settling in New York, NY; and getting married in 1959 and starting a family.

    Oral history interview with Anita Etzyon

    Oral History

    Anita Etzyon, born on October 4, 1941 in Boryslav, Poland (present day Ukraine), describes her family and childhood; being one year old when her mother died from tuberculosis; having few direct memories of the war but being told about her family’s life during that time; being taken away to live with a Christian family and getting baptized to better fit into her surroundings; returning to live with her father, who had remarried, after the war; living in a Jewish neighborhood and attending a Jewish school; moving to various cities around Poland with her father and step-mother; being the only Jew in her school in Swidnica, Poland; adjusting to life as a Jew after she had spent four years as a Christian; immigrating to Israel in 1951; learning Hebrew and adjusting to life in Israel; getting married to avoid serving in the Israeli Army; having a daughter; immigrating to the United States with her husband and daughter 1963; settling in Washington, DC and working for a Jewish Day School; and her reflections on being a Jew in the modern world.

    Oral history interview with Melvin Galun

    Oral History

    Melvin Galun, born on May 10, 1940 in Kowal, Poland, describes his parents’ participation in the Zionist movement; his mother’s stories about Jews being sent away to the camps; going into hiding in the nearby forests; his memory of his family’s liberation by Russian troops; staying in several German displaced persons camps after the war; his early education in the displaced persons camps; participating in Zionist youth movements in the camps; immigrating to the United States in November 1949; his studies in the United States at a Yeshiva school; traveling to Israel after graduating school and working in a kibbutz for a year; and getting married in 1963 and starting a family.

    Oral history interview with Magdalena Farkas Berkovics

    Oral History

    Magdalena Farkas Berkovics, born on July 15, 1919 in Cluj, Romania, discusses her childhood, schooling and musical training in a conservatory; experiencing low level antisemitism; getting married in 1939; living in her house in the Cluj ghetto with other women after the city’s Jewish men had been taken away for forced labor; conditions in the ghetto, including food scarcity and the black market; providing piano lessons to Christian children; being deported in June 1944; terrible conditions in the train car; her arrival at Auschwitz; being separated from her family except for one 25-year-old cousin; how her clothes were taken away and her hair removed; going to Stutthof in August 1944 and then digging ditches in Steinort (Sztynort, Poland), Elbing (Elbląg, Poland), and Groudentz; speaking about freedom with the other women and singing Hungarian songs; being liberated and traveling to Satu Mare, Romania, where Jewish volunteers helped her return to Cluj; how she found Christians living in her house and learned that she was the only survivor in her family; marrying, Zoltan Berkovics, in 1946; the birth of their son, Tiberius, who later changed his name to John Sylvanis because of antisemitism in Romania; how Communists nationalized her house and forced her to pay rent; teaching in the Romanian conservatory for 30 years; immigrating with her husband to the United States in the 1980s; and feeling very grateful for American liberty and democracy.

    Oral history interview with Sol Mackler

    Oral History

    Sol Mackler, born on January 15,1921 in Poland, discusses his childhood in a small village; visiting relatives in nearby Radom; being forced to live in a ghetto in 1939 with sixteen people in one house; wearing a yellow star; in late 1941 walking seven miles to Pionki labor camp, being given a striped uniform and the number 1058; working in a munitions factory, then laying railway tracks in a tunnel; escaping with four other prisoners to the forest and joining Polish Jewish partisans; being captured by Germans and being sent by train to Sachsenhausen; seeing his sister and her baby there; smuggling his one year old nephew into Pionki to the child’s father, a tailor who made Nazi uniforms; waiting for Russians at liberation; going back to his village and being severely beaten; living in Bad Nauheim displaced persons camp in Germany; working on the black market selling diamonds from Belgium; arriving in the United States in December 1949 after being sponsored by two Jewish Californian wine makers; moving to New York to work and getting married in 1956; working for his brother-in-law; and finding out his parents were executed in Treblinka.

    Oral history interview with Theresia Bauer

    Oral History

    Theresia Bauer discusses her involvement with the League of German Girls (Bund Deutscher Mädel), which paralleled the boys’ Hitler Youth (Hitler Jugend); the Soviet occupation of Austria, a time period in which she was constantly hiding from soldiers; and her husband's experience as a prisoner of war in Russia.

    Oral history interview with Carolina Taitz

    Oral History

    Carolina Taitz (née Lena Knoch), born on February 24, 1929 in Russia on a train, discusses her childhood in Viesite, Latvia; having friendly relations with schoolmates in her Latvian public school; how her father, a tree doctor, lost his business and the family house and was temporarily imprisoned as a capitalist when the Russian Communists occupied the town; experiencing a lot of antisemitism; seeing Jews being shot on the street when the Germans came in 1941; being forced to live in the ghetto in Riga, Latvia with five people to a room and little food; getting hit in the eye when a German soldier caught her with a cooked potato; being forced to work in a shoe polish factory from 5 AM to 5 PM; going on a forced march with 30,000 people guarded by German soldiers; seeing and hearing people being shot in a ditch in the Rumbula forest; walking with her mother, sister, and 200 other women to Termini prison; staying on the roof in the cold for two weeks in November 1942 and the birth of a baby, named Termina; going back to the ghetto; dressing as a boy going to work and escaping during a second Aktion when she was 14 years old; taking off her yellow star; being sheltered by a Russian Evangelist priest, Vladimir Michko, and his sister for two and a half years; living in their cellar; going back to Riga at liberation; her mother returning from Auschwitz but dying soon after; attending acting school; getting married and having a daughter; trying for 10 years to go to the United States, and finally getting a visa with the help of Eleanor Roosevelt; arriving in New York in March 1966; working at the New York City Opera for 19 years in charge of costumes, wigs, and makeup for the productions; being widowed twice and moving to Washington, DC in 2008; and still seeing her mother and little brother in her dreams and herself running away from German soldiers.

    Oral history interview with Helen Schwartz

    Oral History

    Helen Schwartz (b. Hela Kirschner), born in 1925, discusses living in the Łódź ghetto in Poland from 1939 to August 1944; working in a laundry in the ghetto; being taken with her family to Auschwitz concentration camp in 1944; being marched from Auschwitz to Stutthof; her liberation by the Russians near Gdansk, Poland; contracting typhus in an outbreak that hit a group of female survivors following liberation; returning to Łódź and reuniting with her sister; reuniting with her brother at the displaced persons camp in Ainring, Germany; immigrating in 1949 to Portland, Maine, where her husband worked in a clothing factory; opening a tailor’s shop in 1954; raising a family; volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum; and speaking at schools in Silver Spring, Maryland.

    Oral history interview with Irene Silver

    Oral History

    Irene Silver, born Irena Dynkewicz in Łódź, Poland on January 30, 1933, discusses raising her children in the Jewish tradition, being comfortable with friends who understand the Holocaust experience; her anger with people who ask why victims did not fight back during the Holocaust; being tolerant of strangers after having lived with strangers in the Warsaw Ghetto; her work as a social worker and how it was influenced by her wartime experiences; her sympathy with the civil rights movement; her membership in the Hidden Children group in New York where she feels a common ground; receiving Holocaust reparations which she used to help her children; her view that the world has not learned any lessons from the Holocaust; and her emotion at the opening of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, feeling that the rain at the opening ceremony was the heavens crying.

    Oral history interview with Herman Taube

    Oral History

    Herman Taube (né Herschel Taube), born February 2, 1918 in Łódź, Poland, discusses his family; being orphaned by age nine; living with grandparents and later moving to Piyotrkov; attending a yeshiva; being encouraged by a Polish doctor to become a medic; returning to his grandparents in Łódź in 1935 and seeing antisemitic incidents; writing poetry; belonging to a literary society and meeting the Jewish philosopher Martin Buber; working in a military hospital in Alexandrov (possibly Aleksandrów Łódźki, Poland), arranged by Father Jagla, a Catholic priest; joining the Polish Army in August 1939; serving in a medical group that marched to the Bug River where the Soviet Army ordered the group to go to Volodymyr-Volyns'kyĭ, Ukraine to get educated so as to lose their capitalist mentality; accompanying a wounded soldier to Poltawa (Poltava), Ukraine, where an Ukrainian militia man arranged for him to take a new name, Grigori Arionowicz Taube, and live with a Jewish family; going to Samarra (Koibashov or possibly Kuybyshev) and getting more medical training; being sent to Tyumen (Tiumen') in Siberia and working in hospitals and in gulags; in November 1941 going to Tashkent, Uzbekistan and then to Andizhan, Uzbekistan; working in a malaria clinic; leaving the clinic after reporting that people were stealing food from the hospital; going to Seratov, Russia to the Polish Army; being assigned to the Kotsk offensive in June 1944; being badly injured by a mine explosion while riding in a truck; recovering enough by December 1944 and going to Lublin, Poland to the Polish Army headquarters in Majdanek; being assigned to Platte and opening a Red Cross repatriation station where he treated people with typhus; going to Keslin in Bessarabia in June 1945 to acquire more medicine from a CIBA warehouse; meeting a young woman, Susan Strauss, a survivor from Germany and traveling together to Potsdam, Germany; staying in a displaced persons camp in Halle-Merseburg, Germany, where he opened a Red Cross station; meeting a young Auschwitz survivor, Henry Rothfogel; traveling with Susan back to Platte, and getting civilly married and later religiously married; traveling with Susan and Henry in the summer of 1946 to Berlin, Germany with help from the Bricha; adopting a two year old child survivor, Mark; having first child in the Zingenheim displaced persons camp in September 1946; arriving in the United Sates on April 18, 1947 and being interviewed at the pier by the Jewish Daily Forward; going to Baltimore, MD to join Susan's father; writing for the Jewish Daily Forward; traveling to New York, NY to edit a Histadrut yearbook; returning to Baltimore and helping Susan run a grocery store; working for various Jewish organizations; obtaining accreditation as a journalist at the White House and in Congress; and continuing to write poetry, stories, and essays about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Regine Ginsberg

    Oral History

    Regine Ginsberg, born on November 19, 1925, discusses her childhood in Brussels, Belgium; her father’s work in the leather industry; religious observances in the household; speaking Yiddish at home and French in school; how her father wired money to Chase Bank in New York in the 1930s; her family abandoning their home in Brussels to travel by train to France; staying with a farmer in St. Gaudens, France; the family’s arrest in St. Gaudens; how her brother and father were sent to a prison near Toulouse, France and then released seven weeks later; how her mother returned to Brussels and brought back Sabbath candlesticks, prayer shawls, tefillin, and diamond jewelry which she used to bribe guards; how her father contacted a cousin in Pennsylvania; being on the last boat out of France from Marseilles; arriving in New York in June 1942; staying with cousins in Pittsburgh, PA and then settling in McKeesport, PA; her mother and father’s work in the leather industry; moving to Texas where she met her future husband Reuben Ginsberg in Athens, TX; her brother enlisting in the army and being sent to Belgium where he did intelligence work acting as a French interpreter; studying along with her husband at Columbia University in New York; becoming an art dealer and opening up a gallery in the 1970s; her emotional state after the war; and how her wartime experiences affected her life, her marriage, and the way she raised her children.

    Oral history interview with Ursula Guttstadt McKinney

    Oral History

    Ursula Guttstadt McKinney, born November 17, 1925 in Frankfurt an der Oder, Germany, discusses her family’s professional and religious background; her childhood and the troubles she faced obtaining schooling due to being half-Jewish; the difficulties her Jewish father and cousins faced; worrying about her father getting arrested; being able to say goodbye to her father when he was taken to prison and subsequently transported to Mauthausen in October 1942; receiving news that her father died; the Third Reich taking ownership of her family’s house; getting expelled from school in October 1942; moving to Berlin, Germany with her mother and sister; the psychological effects of the war, especially the bombings; her limited contact with the underground; working at a convent where there were some hidden Jewish children; her difficulties resuming a normal life after the war; her education after the war; feeling like an outcast because of being half-Jewish; immigrating, along with her sister, to the United States; not wanting to identify as German; her feelings on being a “mischling,” or having a mixed background; not identifying with one religion and being wed in an Unitarian church; and her work as a founding member of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Rappaport

    Oral History

    Ruth Rappaport, born May 27, 1923 in Leipzig, Germany, discusses her parents, Mendel Rappaport, a Romanian subject, and Helene Rubinstein, who was born in Poland; how her mother’s cousin, also named Helene Rubinstein, was a well-known cosmetics businesswoman, attending an Orthodox Jewish school and an English language school in Leipzig, Germany; her membership in the Zionist youth group, Habonim; her Romanian passport, which did not identify her as a Jew; moving to Switzerland with her family shortly after Kristallnacht; staying in Zurich, Switzerland as a nanny for the Herzog family after her parents returned to Germany; selling nail polish, which her parents sent because they could not send money; being sponsored by her uncle, Carl Rubinstein, who lived in Seattle, Washington to come to the United States; leaving Europe in December 1939 on the Holland American Line boat, the Veendam; her parents’ attempt to leave Germany with Cuban visas; how her father died in Buchenwald and her mother in Ravensbrück, both in 1943; attending high school in Seattle, then the University of Washington, and finishing at Berkeley, majoring in sociology; working after graduation for a Jewish newspaper in Seattle and for the Zionist Emergency Council; working with Bartley Crum for UNSCOP (United Nations Special Committee on Palestine) in San Francisco, CA; working in Israel during the War of Independence in 1948, where she exchanged gunfire with Palestinians; working with Golda Meir; helping establish the Israel Photographic Archives; returning to the United States and working for the Department of Defense as a librarian; living overseas in Okinawa, Japan; Taipei, Taiwan; and Vietnam; and retiring from the government after 19 years.

    Oral history interview with Edith Langer

    Oral History

    Edith Langer, born October 4, 1932 in Hamm, Germany, discusses living on a farm; her devout Lutheran mother; memories of the prewar Jewish community in her town; her early approval of Hitler because his support of public works; meeting Hitler as a member of her scout troop; attending a one-room school with 30 children, 10 of whom were Jewish; her father’s offer to hide the families of two of his Jewish customers in her family’s farm house; her mother’s feeling that hiding Jews was the right thing to do as a Christian; her father's murder by the Nazis for hiding Jews; being sent away from her family to work on a farm, where she stayed from 1941 to 1945 and had no contact with her family; being afraid of German soldiers; seeing murdered Jews in the streets; giving food to the Russian prisoners, who were living on the farm; emigrating from Germany to the United States in 1956; becoming an American citizen in 1961; her hope that more Nazis would be tried, including the one who shot her father; her membership in the Methodist Church; and taking part in protests against the American Nazi Party.

    Oral history interview with Marianne Milkman

    Oral History

    Marianne Friedenthal Milkman, born May 13, 1931 in Berlin, Germany, discusses her childhood in Germany; being baptized and raised as Christian to have more opportunities; changing schools and apartments in 1938 because of anti-Jewish laws; her aunt Lotte Friedenthal, who worked with Pastor Martin Niemӧller; her father’s deportation to Sachsenhausen in 1938; traveling to Switzerland in January 1939 and then flying with her sister to England on a Kindertransport in May 1939; living with relatives in Cambridge, England; the arrival of her parents in England and her father’s internment on the Isle of Man as an enemy alien; joining her father on the Isle of Man in May 1940; returning to Cambridge in May 1941, where she remained throughout the war; graduating from high school and Cambridge University; coming to the United States in 1957 to study biology; getting married and living in Iowa for 30 years; settling in Washington, DC; her Jewish identity; and her feeling that her experience during the war made her a stronger person.

    Oral history interview with Ruth Cohen

    Oral History

    Ruth Friedman Cohen, born April 26, 1930 in Mukachevo, Czechoslovakia (present day Mukacheve, Ukraine), describes her life after the Holocaust; her prewar life in Czechoslovakia; her family’s religious beliefs; her family’s deportation to Auschwitz in 1944; her mother and brother’s death immediately after their arrival at Auschwitz; her transfer to Nuremberg, Germany and then Holachov; the painful effects of tuberculosis that she contracted in Holachov; her survival and liberation by the Russian Army; her and her sister’s return to Mukachevo, where they reunited with their father; her time in Budapest, Hungary and Prague, Czech Republic, where she recuperated from tuberculosis; her immigration to the United States in 1948; the various jobs she had to support herself; her marriage in 1952; her education at the New School for Social Research; and her struggle to recover from the damaging emotional and mental effects of the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Phillip Abraham

    Oral History

    Phillip Abraham, born August 10, 1931 in Podului-Turkului (Podu Turcului), Romania, describes his prewar life in Romania; his family’s religious beliefs; his childhood in a close-knit Jewish community; his family’s move to Tecuci, Romania in 1940; his father being taken away and then released in 1942; the lack of food available to the population; his education in a Jewish school; his town’s liberation by the Russian Army; his post-war Romanian education; his membership in Hashomer Hatzair, a Zionist youth organization; his time in Israel; his education at Hebrew University and Weizmann Institute, where he studied physics; his immigration to the United States in 1959; his careers at Raytheon and the Office of Naval Research; his marriage in 1964; and his two children.

    Oral history interview with George Arnstein

    Oral History

    George Ernest Arnstein, born September 20, 1924 in Stuttgart, Germany, describes his prewar life in Germany; the repercussions of the Nuremberg laws; his experiences with antisemitism; his father’s arrest on Kristallnacht; his father’s time in Dachau; his family’s decision to leave Germany and go to Geneva, Switzerland; his family’s immigration to the United States in 1938; the anti-German sentiment in America during World War II and its effects on him; his service for the United States Army beginning in 1943 and his duties as a crypto-analyst; his work in Germany helping to perform interrogations, monitoring anti-American efforts, and denazification; his return to Wisconsin after the war; his education at Berkeley and Geneva; and his life post-war.

    Oral history interview with Gertrude Scarlett Epstein

    Oral History

    Gertrude Scarlett Epstein, born July 13, 1922 in Vienna, Austria, describes her early life growing up in Vienna; her Czech father’s belief in free thinking; how her family was not religious; her parents’ and older brothers’ experiences during World War I; her Uncle Willie, who became wealthy as a textile factory owner; how she began to notice antisemitism in Vienna when her family moved to a non-Jewish part of town in the 1930s; her father’s and oldest brother’s activities in the socialist movement; her memories of a strike in Vienna in 1934; her memories of the Anschluss; her brothers’ immigration to England; her experience securing visas for Czechoslovakia on the day Hitler entered Vienna; her feelings that her moral code shifted as it became necessary to lie; her father’s arrest and later release from jail in Czechoslovakia; the family’s move to Albania by train; help provided to the family by her Uncle Willie; how she smuggled money out of Austria and Czechoslovakia; her family’s life in Albania from November 1938 to April 1939; the reaction of native Albanians towards Austrian refugees; how the Joint Distribution Committee helped refugees in Albania; her experiences teaching German to Albanians and the Italian consulate; problems she and her mother had in securing passage from Albania to England; brutal treatment she and her mother received from German police at a fuel stop in Germany; her memories of learning about concentration camps in 1943 or 1944; and how she tracked down an Albanian family to whom she taught German.

    Oral history interview with Matilde Neuwirt

    Oral History

    Matilde Neuwirt, born December 26, 1930 in Belgrade, Serbia, describes her early life in Belgrade; how her parents spoke Serbo-Croatian and Ladino at home; her family’s upper-middle class lifestyle; her schooling at both a public and a Jewish school; the lack of apprehension she felt in the pre-war years; her mother’s decision that the family leave Yugoslavia in the summer of 1940; her family’s escape westward through Dubrovnik, Croatia and then to Italy; how her parents smuggled money out of Yugoslavia; her family’s arrival in Italy without visas; living in Vicenza, Italy; how her family was moved to a detention camp in Sandrigo by the Italian authorities; the unofficial schooling that families set up for the children in Sandrigo; how the Italian authorities encouraged families to leave Sandrigo when Italy capitulated to the Germans; the help Jewish families received from a government official to get false documents; her family’s experience traveling to Rome, Italy; her memories of German brutality on the streets; how she did not know what was happening to Jews elsewhere in the country nor the rest of Europe; her brother’s return to Yugoslavia to fight with Tito’s partisans; the anti-Jewish sentiment of the partisans; her brother’s disappearance and the lack of information about him from the Yugoslav government; her family’s decision to emigrate from Italy to the United States in 1949; her family’s arrival in New York, NY; her feelings about Americanization and leaving memories of Europe behind; her memories of the Eichmann trial; her experiences returning to Yugoslavia and Italy after the war; and her belief that her family was lucky in the way they lived through the war.

    Oral history interview with Susanne K. Bennet

    Oral History

    Susanne Klejman Bennet, born August 11, 1938 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses her memories of entering the Warsaw ghetto; seeing the brick walls being built in the ghetto; living with her grandparents, aunts, and uncles all together in one apartment; beggars asking for food in her building; how her father, a successful art and antiquities dealer, arranged with a non-Jewish friend to have a Polish policeman take her out of the ghetto to a farm in the countryside; how, just before the destruction of the ghetto, her mother escaped from her work group and hid with nuns who gave her a habit and a new name; how the nuns were later rounded up, but were saved on the train platform by a Catholic commandant; how her father escaped from the ghetto through the sewers right before the uprising and went into hiding throughout Warsaw; how as a young child, she knew not to talk about her parents; seeing the red sky in the distance when Warsaw was burning in 1944; her reunion with her parents; the death of most of her relatives during the Holocaust; moving with her parents to Stockholm, Sweden in 1947; receiving visas in 1949 from the Swedish ambassador to Mexico where she and her family stayed for nine months; immigrating to the United States in 1950; living in New York where her father opened up a store off of Fifth Avenue and became a major art dealer with John and Robert Kennedy, the Rockefellers, the Fords, and Greta Garbo as his clients; attending Wellesley College, where she received a masters in library science; meeting her husband Douglas Bennet, who later worked for Hubert Humphrey, Senator Abe Ribicoff, and was an Assistant Secretary of State, head of US AID and NPR, and president of Wesleyan College; their eldest son, Michael, a United States senator from Colorado; their second son, James, the editor-in-chief of The Atlantic Monthly; their daughter, Holly, a financial adviser; her feelings when visiting Germany with her husband; how her father never spoke about his wartime experience; and how she has only recently started talking about her childhood during the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Marianne Roberts

    Oral History

    Marianne Roberts (née Marianne Cohn), born June 20, 1920 in Ludwigshafen, Germany, discusses her childhood in Ludwigshafen; experiencing antisemitism; her father's death from tuberculosis in 1933; her expulsion from school with her sister, Lottie, because they were Jewish; her mother's death in 1936; being photographed at the City Hall to show her "Jewish left ear" and being given the name ‘Sarah’; living with her sister until Kristallnacht; hiding in a basement for three days with no food while their apartment was being destroyed; moving into her sister's fiancé’s family's house for a few months and never going outside; going to the American Consulate to get visas their mother had applied for three years previously; leaving Germany in early 1939 with 4 dollars, pots and pans, and a family ring; sailing on the Cunard White Star to New York, NY; working in a doctor's office in Brooklyn; getting married and having two children; and speaking for past 20 years in schools and colleges about her wartime experiences.

    Oral history interview with Harry Markowicz

    Oral History

    Harry Markowicz, born August 9, 1937 in Berlin, Germany, discusses his childhood in Antwerp, Belgium; being hidden during the war with the Coons family in Brussels, Belgium, then in a children's home, and then in the Von der Linden's house under the name Henry Von der Linden; his parents who lived in hiding with another couple; how his father did not go outside for two years while in hiding; his brother, Mani, who was saved by Father Joseph Andre; how his mother found him after liberation; the removal of Allied flags at the time of the Battle of the Bulge because of fear that German forces would make their way to Brussels; arriving in the United States with his parents in March 1951; settling in Seattle, WA and going to high school and the University of Washington; traveling to Paris, France for a year for training as a French teacher; traveling to Israel to learn Hebrew; teaching French in Tacoma, WA; learning sign language and working at Gallaudet University for 29 years; feeling more comfortable among Holocaust survivors; and volunteering at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, where he feels a bond with the other volunteers.

    Oral history interview with Julie A. Keefer

    Oral History

    Julie Keefer (née Jula Weinstock Eisen), born on April 19, 1941 in Lvov, Poland (present day L'viv, Ukraine), discusses her family’s forced relocation into the Lvov ghetto; the escape of her grandfather, Aiski Eisen, from a camp in Janov; her grandfather finding help from Mr. Borecki, who told him in late 1943 that the ghetto was to be burned, and her grandfather’s rescue of her family from the ghetto; her memories of a tunnel or bunker in the forest, to which a few dozen people were smuggled out of the ghetto; her memories of her grandfather donning a Nazi uniform to smuggle people out of the ghetto; being taken out of the bunker because she and her baby sister, Tola, were endangering others by crying; being placed with Mrs. Szwarczynski, a Catholic woman; the arrival of the Russians in Lvov in June 1944; staying in three displaced persons camps in 1945; living in Camp Taylor in Linz, Austria; traveling alone at seven years old to the United States, where she lived in a series of Catholic orphanages, seeing relatives on weekends; being called a Nazi because she spoke German; being sent by the Joint Distribution Committee to the Bellefaire Jewish Children's Orphanage in Cleveland, OH; her adoption by Fred and Tea Klejstadt; attending Oberlin College; getting married and earning a graduate degree in education; feeling grateful to United States; and her desire to find out what happened to her hidden sister whose name became Antonina Noviska.

    Oral history interview with Erica Laufer

    Oral History

    Erica Laufer, born May 11, 1930 in Klagenfurt, Austria, discusses being the only Jewish child in her school, where she was taught by nuns; her mother denying her Jewish identity but her father being observant; an appearance by Hitler after the Anschluss; being forced to wear the yellow Star of David; being barred from attending school; moving into her grandfather's apartment in Vienna, Austria and living there in secret; SA attacks on Jewish homes; witnessing the events of Kristallnacht while hiding in a doorway; how her father obtained tickets to Trinidad; sailing on the Dutch ship Cotica with other refugees; establishing a life in Port of Spain, Trinidad; being forced, as refuges, to live in a detention center after England entered the war; going to a boarding school to be the companion to the daughter of the director; sailing to New York, NY with her parents in December 1940; moving to Washington, DC where she was discriminated against by other children because of her accent; her academic success; her work for the federal government; getting married and starting a family; not raising her children as Jews following an oath to her mother; the number of relatives she lost in Europe; and her attempts to suppress her feelings about the Holocaust.

    Oral history interview with Barbara Goldberg

    Oral History

    Barbara Goldberg, born in 1943 in Wilmington, DE, discusses her parents, Emma and Erich, who received visas from the Portuguese diplomat Aristides de Sousa Mendes to emigrate from France to Portugal; their journey over the Pyrenees to Spain and then to Portugal; their arrival in the United States; her uncle Paul Brennan (born Pavel Briess) who had been in Theresienstadt and Auschwitz; how other relatives made it to Palestine, Australia, and South Africa; speaking only German in the house; how her parents’ personalities were shaped by the war; never discussing the past or other relatives' stories; feeling a connection to refugees; living with the memory of the Holocaust; and her discovery later in life that Aristides de Sousa Mendes had helped her family.

    Oral history interview with Liselotte Epstein Ivry

    Oral History

    Liselotte Epstein Ivry, born July 21, 1925 in Lichtenstein, Czechoslovakia (possibly present day Lichtenstein, Saxony, Germany), describes her family, including her father Victor Ivry, mother Elsa Sicher, and younger brother Hans; the large families on both her father’s and mother’s sides; having heard of Hitler at age 12; being taken by truck with soldiers to live with relatives in a nearby village and then by train to live in Prague, Czech Republic; the many changes after the Germans marched in on March 15, 1939; having been set to go to Great Britain in 1939 on the Kindertransport but instead being sent first to a children’s facility in Prague and then to a private home; being sent to Terezin September 9, 1942 to work as a nurse in the hospital; the transport and death of her mother and brother on March 8, 1944; being sent on December 15, 1943 in a cattle car to Auschwitz, to Block 11; being given number 70663; how the will to live was what kept you alive; being sent to Hamburg, Germany to work first in a sand pit, then as a train switcher, and finally as a brick-maker; how their camp was bombed and they were moved to Bergen-Belsen; the ensuing chaos and then the emotion and celebration after being liberated by the British; eventually going to Canada in 1949 to stay with her uncle; marrying in 1950 to a Lithuanian, Sydney; her children; her attitude about Germany now and forgiving but not forgetting; her book, I Am Their Voice, which is a collection of poems, letters, and anecdotes by children from her 25 years as a speaker; and how now she is doing research for a work about Madeleine Albright.

    Oral history interview with Hans Ziegler

    Oral History

    Hans Ziegler, born June 12, 1925 in Brno, Czechoslovakia, discusses being raised as a Christian with a Jewish father; his parents divorcing in 1934; his father’s factory going out of business in 1937; attending a German elementary school; his father’s deportation to Terezin (Theresienstadt concentration camp) in 1942; being transported to Berlin, Germany in 1943 for forced labor; being sent in September 1944 to Postelberg (Postoloprty), Czech Republic; escaping in April 1945 with two others to the woods; hiding in Brno until the Russians arrived; getting repatriated and going to university for three years; being expelled by the Soviets in 1949 because his father was a capitalist and a diplomat; being in the military for two years; being employed as a chemist in an armaments factory; working in Egypt and Afghanistan; escaping to Germany in 1970 and staying until 1983; going to the United States and working in Warren, Ohio until 1990; going back to Germany; feeling more Jewish than Christian; and how he thinks more about his father and his war-time experiences.

    Oral history interview with Vera Levine

    Oral History

    Oral history interview with Guenter Lewy

    Oral History

    Guenter Lewy, born August 22, 1923 in Breslau, Germany (Wrocław, Poland), discusses his childhood in a large extended assimilated family; his memory of seeing Hitler at the 1936 Olympics; belonging to a Jewish Zionist youth group; being attacked on a hiking trip by German storm troopers; his father’s three month imprisonment in Buchenwald after Kristallnacht; going with Youth Aliyah via Trieste to Palestine in March 1939; being met in Haifa by his uncle; living on Kibbutz Tzarad where he worked as a shepherd; his parents’ escape to the United States in late 1941; volunteering in early 1942 for the Palestine Regiment of the British Army; joining the Jewish Brigade and being stationed in Egypt; traveling to Italy with Montgomery's 8th Army in late 1944; traveling to Holland at the war’s end; his role in organizing illegal immigration to Palestine; interrogating German civilians in Berlin; returning to Palestine; traveling to the United States to see his parents in late 1946; graduating from college in 1951 and earning a Master's and Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1957; teaching at Columbia, Smith College, and University of Massachusetts; teaching in Germany from 1961 to 1962; his feelings about German people today; the strong influence of his youth group on his resilience; his writings on the moral dimensions of history and the Nazi persecution of the Romani peoples; his current interest in writing about Holocaust perpetrators; reoccurring dreams about Nazis brutality; and feeling that some of the best Holocaust scholarship has being written by contemporary young German scholars.

    Oral history interview with Malvy Solomon

    Oral History

    Malvy Solomon (née Aizic), born in 1938 in Bacau, Romania, discusses pre-war violence against Jews; her father’s conscription into forced labor for the Romanian military in 1941; living with her mother and grandmother in the ghetto with little food; her father’s return in 1944; attending a Jewish primary school and learning Hebrew; surviving bombings; the Soviet arrival in Romania at war’s end; Soviet looting after the war; her school’s closure by Soviet authorities; post-war antisemitism and anti-Capitalist feelings; her father’s job working for the communist government after he was forced to close his store; finishing high school at 16; her medical schooling and career; her marriage; immigrating to Israel in 1961; attending medical school in Tel Aviv; getting divorced, treating soldiers and bombing victims; remarrying in 1971; immigrating to the United States; her education in the U.S.; working for the Department of Veterans Affairs; and her feelings about the war, communism, and her life.

    Oral history interview with Elia Miranski and Genia Miranski

    Oral History

    Elia Miranski, born on August 3, 1922 in Mir, Poland (present day Belarus), describes growing up in a poor, moderately religious family but experiencing no antisemitism until the German invasion in 1939; his parents’ deaths in the first few days of the occupation; escaping with his brother, Israel, from the ghetto which had been set up in a castle; joining Russian partisans in the forest; blowing up railroad tracks for two years; trains near Valozhyn, Belarus; planes dropping supplies; others taking the wounded away from the front lines; Russians mobilizing all partisans into the army; being wounded by the Germans; traveling back to Mir after the war; working on a dairy farm for seven years as a supervisor; moving to Minsk, Belarus and working as a house painter; getting married and having a daughter; going to Israel in 1972 and then to the United States in 1995; thinking day and night about his wartime experiences; and going back to Mir from Israel for a memorial ceremony in the cemetery. Genia Miranski, daughter of Elia Miranski, adds to her father’s interview by translating it into English and by describing Elia’s membership in the Zionist youth group Hashomer Hatzair; Elia’s parents and two younger siblings being shot by Germans; Elia building bridges and roads; witnessing his friend being mauled to death by a dog; living in the castle ghetto; Elia’s experience escaping and hiding in a swamp for three days and at times breathing through a straw when German dogs were nearby; joining Russian partisans; his return to Minsk at the end of the war and experiencing a significant amount of antisemitism; the Six Day War in Israel; going to an underground bakery at night to get Passover matzo; arriving in Israel in 1972; living in underground bunkers in 1973 during the Yom Kippur War; and her own arrival in the U.S. in 1985 and her parents’ arrival in 1995.

    Oral history interview with Maria Kordalewski

    Oral History

    Maria Kordalewski, born April 13, 1924 in Poland, describes her Ukrainian parents and her two siblings, Nicolai and Nadja; going to school and her Jewish friends; the Russians coming in 1939 and the subsequent food shortages; how people were being sent away to Siberia; the absence of antisemitism in their small town until the German occupation in 1941; how her family hid two boys until the boys escaped; how her brother was arrested in 1942, along with other young men, as a means of preventing an uprising; the Russians coming in 1945 when the war was over; being sent with her sister to Lvov (L'viv, Ukraine) to get away from the communists; being sent to a displaced persons camp in Regensburg, Germany and going to school to study pharmaceuticals; arriving in the United States in 1950 by herself; landing in New York City, NY; the various jobs she held at first; moving to Detroit, MI then to California, and finally to Miami, FL; and her feelings that the Holocaust should never be forgotten.

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